K67      ^"]^--^    - 


I    K67 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 

Form  L  1 


^^^ 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  belo^ 


nil  L-9-15m-8,"24 


I 


EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF 
THE    DAY 


CHIPS 


FROM  A  TEACHER'S   WORKSHOP 

BV 

L.   R.   KLEMM,   PH.D. 

FORMERLY   SrPERVISOR   OF   GERMAN    DEPARTMENT   Hl'IiLIC    SCHOOLS, 

CLEVELAND,     O. ;     PRINCIPAL    OF     A     NORMAL    DEPARTMENT, 

CINCINNATI,   O.  :     AND   SUPERINTENDENT   OK    PL-RLIC 

SCHOOLS,  HAMILTON,  O.;    INSTITUTE   CONDUCTOR, 

AND  AUTHOK  OF  NUMEROUS   SCHOOLBOOKS 


ROSTO>J 
LEE    AND    SIIEPARD    PUBLISHERS 

NEW    VORK 
CHARLES    T.    DILLINGHAM 

iSSS 


c' 


PREFACE. 


Many  of  the  articles  in  this  book  appeared  in  the  lead- 
ing educational  journals.  They  are  here  collected  because 
they  are  thought  of  sufficient  practical  value  to  be  thus 
preserved.  In  offering  this  book  to  the  public,  the  author 
desires  to  have  it  understood  that  he  does  not  undertake 
to  present  a  complete  system  of  education,  but,  beside  sonie 
essays  and  historical  dissertations,  chips  from  his  own 
educational  workshop.  Chips  are  useful  for  kindling 
fires.  If  these  chips  should  help  a  little  to  kindle  tlie 
fire  of  enthusiasm  in  the  hearts  of  some  teachers,  they 
will  be  doing  what  they  were  intended  for.  Should  the 
patient  reader  find  a  harsh  word  now  and  then  in  these 

\ii  articles,  he  may  consider  that  they  were  written  for  Uie 
'  ^   educational   press;   that   is,  for  a  purpose.     To  tone  them 

j,.^  down,  would  seriously  change  their  character.  Character 
is  what  a  man  is;  his  reputation,  what  people  say  of  him. 

^  It  is  so  with  books.  Whatever  reputation  this  liook  may 
get,  the  author  does  not  propose  to  let  that  interfere  with 
its  character.  lie  gives  himself  in  the  pagi's  of  this  book, 
his  mode  of  thinking  and  discussing,  his  manner  of 
teaching;  and  he  sincerely  Ii()|H's,  that,  though  his  manner 
may    be    found    faulty,  his   sincerity  of    puriv>se,   his  g(x>d 

5 


6  J' II K  FACE. 

intention  to  benefit  his  young  colleagues,  will  not  be 
doubted. 

At  present,  the  author  is  engaged  in  studying  the  schools 
in  England,  France,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Switzerland. 

After  his  return  from  t^urope,  he  will  offer  a  second 
volume,  under  the  title,  "  Chips  from  Educational  Work- 
shops in  Europe." 


Hamilton,  O.,  September,  1887. 

L.  R.  K. 


COjSrTEjSTTS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

PAGE. 

OPEy^  LETTEnS   TO  A    YGCyG   TEACHER. 

First  Lettei:.     Method  and  Manner 13 

SpxoNi)  Letter.     "Similia  Similibus  Curantur"  ...  17 
TniRD  Letter.     Cause  and  Effect;  or,   IIow  to  Keep 

Young 24 

Fourth  Letter.     The  Old,  Old  Question 30 

Fifth  Letter.     Sketch  of  a  Good  School 35 

Sixth  Letter.     Stimulants  in  Teaching 40 

Sevextii  Letter.     Teachers'  Examinations     ....  45 

Ekjhtii  Letter.     Rapidity  in  Recitation 49 

Ninth  Letter.     Continuity  of  Instruction 54 

Tenth  Letter.    Why  Take  the  Trouble '?    ......  59 

CHAPTER  IL 
FROM  THE  EXPERIENCE  OF  A   SUPER  VISOR. 

A  Pertinent  Question  Answered 67 

The  Medical  Practice  of  a  Teacher 75 

I.     A  Weak  Speller 75 

II.     The  Rescue  of  a  Dunce 78 

III.  A  "  Bad "  Boy  in  Arithmetic •.     .  81 

IV.  A  Boy  "  like  Kaspar  Hauser  " S3 

Discipline. —  A  Reformatory  Class 80 

Scenes  from  School-Life 91 

Professional  Sui'ERVIsion 95 

Mkc  HANK  al  Vii:ti'es !)U 

A  Case  of  Uninte.ntional  Crlei.tv 102 

7 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  Iir. 

PAGE 

FUNDAMENTAL   E/i/iOIiS  IN  TEACIJINO. 

PF.n-CENT  Systkm  of  Gradino 107 

Competition  in  School Ill 

Memorizing  the  Printed  Page 114 

Examination  Questions 117 

From  the  Frying-Pan  into  the  Fire 121 

The  Outlook 126 

Catch-Words 128 

CHAPTER  IV. 
SOME  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

I.    Teach  in  Accordance  with  Nature's  Laws  .  133 
II.    Teach  in  Accordance  with   Psychological 

Laws 135 

III.  Teach  Ob.jectively;  Appeal  TO  the  Senses  .  137 

IV.  Teach  Intelligibly 1.39 

Methods  of  Teaching 142 

Definitions 142 

Didactic,  Heuristic,  and  Systematic  Methods    ....  144 

The  Essence  of  Method 145 

Analysis  and  Synthesis 147 

Summary  of  Methods  of  Teaching 151 

CHAPTER  V. 
the  art  of  questioning,  and  practice  of  teaching. 

Hints  to  Beginners 1.55 

The  Socratic  Method 1.59 

Two  Examples  of  Socratic  Questioning   ....  162 

How  the  Mind  Grows • 165 

A  Review  Lesson  in  Psychology 169 

See,  Do,  and  then  Tell 172 

A  Proof  Positive 177 


CONTENTS.  9 
CHArTER   VI. 

PAGE 

AniTllMETIC. 

ITow  TO  Teacit  Fraction?? 183 

IIo'iV  TO  Teach  PKUCEXTAfiE 189 

A  Device,  not  a  Method 10:5 

PiJicE-LiST  ok  Commodities  in  the  Schoolroom  .    .  l'.)7 

Primauy  Arithmetic l!>i> 

Miss  Celeste's  Pennies 200 


CHAPTER  VII. 

literature  and  language. 

The  Poet  Schiller 

A  Pertinent  Qtestion 

(rekman  in  the  schools 

The  Value  of  Grammai:      .    .    .    , 

Polyglot  English 

Misused  Words , 

A  Practical  CoMrosiTioN  Lesson 
Spelling  Taught  Rationally     . 
A  Suggestion  in  Spelling  .    .     .     , 
Garment  and  Substance  of  Thought 
Miss  Lottie's  Three  Boys    ... 
In  Black  ox  White 


20.5 
215 
22;i 
228 
220 
2:W 

•im 

2;5« 

n\) 

243 
245 
246 


CHAPTER  VII L 
GEOGRAPrfY. 
A  New  Departure  in  Teaching  Geography.    . 
History  and  Geography,  the  Siamese  Twins    . 
L     The  Boundarios  of  Ohio  ami  Indiana,  etc.     .     . 
II.     Tlu'  Bomidarit's  of  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware 
in.     The  XoUh  in  the  Xorthein  IJonndary  .... 
IV.     The  Boundary  between  Kentucky  and  Tennessee 
Parallels  and  Meridians 


251 

268 
208 
272 
274 

277 

2S2 


10 


CONTENTS. 


A  Poser 


Life  CoNTUADUTixf;  the  Sciioolmasteu 
One  Way  of  Getting  at  the  Idea 
Odd  QiESTioNs  Oddly  Axswehed    .     . 
Elementauy  Wokk.  —  The  Zones     .    . 


PAOE 

285 


287 
290 
292 
293 


CHAPTER  IX. 

HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

Educatiox  IX  Pome 297 

The  Ancient  Gekmans 307 

An  Intekview  between  Pestalozzi  and  Dk.  Bell  .  815 

PRUSSIAN  Schools  Seventy  Yeahs  Ago 320 

PeEOKMEKS    and    PltOMOTEIIS    OF    EDUCATION   DURING 

tue  Christian  Eua 323 


CHAPTER   X. 
HISTORY. 

Why,  When,  and  How  to  teach  History  ....  341 

Cause  and  Effect  in  History 356 

A  Glance  into  the  Middle  Ages 380 

Inventions  during  the  Middle  Ages 387 

Natural  Calling,  or  Not? 391 

A  Bird's-eye  View  of  Modern  History      ....  394 

What  is  Nihilism  ? 402 

A  Talk  with  my  Boys 405 

Our  Country 406 

What  I  Heard  from  the  Stump 407 


CHAPTER   I. 

OPEN  LETTEES   TO  A  YOUNG  TEACHER. 


>. 


EDUCATIONAL  TOPICS  OF  THE  DAY. 


CHAFfER   I. 

OPEN   LETTEES   TO   A   YOUNG   TEACHER. 
FIRST  LETTER. 

METHOD    AND    MANNER. 

My  dear  Young  Lady,  —  Yon  seek  information 
upon  a  commonplace  snbject,  which,  I  will  admit  in 
the  beginning,  is  not  commonplace  at  all.  You  ask, 
"  How  would  you  impart  knowledge  to  normally 
endowed  pupils?  What  method  would  you  prefer  for 
young  children?  " 

Did  you  consider  that  I  might  say,  my  young  friend, 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  imparting  knowledge? 
Reserve  your  incredulous  smile  until  you  have  heard 
ray  explanation.  1  mean  to  say  that  any  one  who 
uses  the  term  impartinij  knowledge  speaks  erroneously, 
as  it  is  wrong  to  say  the  sun  rises  or  sets  :  he  does  no 
such  thing.  To  impart  knowledge,  evidently  means,  to 
convey,  to  make  knowledge  part  of  the  learner.  Now, 
this  is  the  very  thing  which,  I  cltiiin,  is  impossible. 

Compare  the  psychological  process  of  learning,  with 
the  physiological  process  of  digestion,     'i'riie,  this   is 


14         KDUCAriONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

a  liomc'ly  illnstrntion,  and  not  the  most  aesthetic ;  but 
it  is  the  most  available.  Can  you  impart  a  beefsteak 
to  another  person?  You  cannot.  You  can  cook  it 
well,  serve  it  daintily,  offer  it  with  one  of  your  sweet 
smiles ;  but  make  that  beefsteak  a  part  of  his  body  j'ou 
cannot.  The  person  will  have  to  do  the  biting,  chew- 
ing, swallowing,  digesting,  and  assimilating,  himself. 
You  may  season  the  beefsteak  admirably,  you  may 
make  it  palatable,  you  may  do  any  thing  and  every 
thing  to  entice  him  to  eat  it ;  but  you  cannot  per- 
form the  process  of  digestion  and  assimilation  for 
him. 

It  is  exactly  so  in  teaching.  You  cannot  impart 
knowledge.  All  that  3'ou  can  do,  and  that,  I  insist 
upon  it,  you  must  do,  is  to  make  knowledge  palatable, 
to  serve  it  well,  to  select  it  with  reference  to  the  child's 
mental  stomach,  to  prepare  it  so  that  the  child  will  be 
enticed  to  partake  of  it ;  Ijut  impart  it  you  cannot. 
The  child's  intellect  grows  as  a  plant  does,  from  inside 
outwardly,  not  from  without  inwardl}-.  Therefore,  if 
3"Ou  should  hear  of  any  one  of  whom  it  is  said  that  he 
understands  the  art  of  imparting  knowledge,  j'ou  may 
take  it  for  granted  that  something  else  is  meant ; 
namely,  that  he  understands  the  art  of  cooking  and 
serving  facts  well.  Really,  m}^  friend,  the  teacher  is 
to  be  a  good  cook  of  mental  food  ;  and  it  depends 
upon  his  professional  training  and  his  experience, 
whether  he  becomes  a  chef,  and  can  make  chefs-cVoeuvre, 
and  deserves  a  salary  such  as  is  paid  to  a  chef  de 
cuisine  at  Delmouico's  or  the   Hoffman  House,  or  a 


OPEN  LETTERS   TO  A    YOUNG   TEACHER.      15 

Bridget  who  tortures  the  family  witli  execrable  ex[)eri- 
raents,  and  is  finally  degraded  to  scullery  work. 

Do  not  feel  dowu-hearled  or  insulted  because  I  com- 
pare the  teacher  with  a  cook,  for  all  similes  are  more 
or  less  lame.  Remember  that  we  may  compare  the 
teacher's  profession  with  that  of  the  pln'sician,  and 
j-ou  will  feel  consoled.  Diseased  digestive  organs 
need  specially  prescribed  diet,  and  so  you  will  be 
obliged  to  diet  pupils  whose  mental  faculties  are  either 
in  an  acute  or  a  chronic  state  of  disease.  Here,  you 
see,  we  are  approaching  the  domain  of  the  physician. 
But,  forsooth,  there  is  more  similarit}'  between  the 
cook  and  the  teacher  than  we  are  willing  to  admit. 
I  am  very  sorry  to  say  that  few  cJiefs  in  teaching 
have  ever  reached  the  salary  which  chefs  de  cuisine 
in  some  large  hotels  in  New  York  receive  ;  but  it  only 
proves  the  truth  of  what  a  lady  of  ni}'  acquaintance 
sometimes  'says,  with  a  reproachful  look  across  the 
table,  when  I  find  some  dishes  not  suited  to  my  palate : 
"  Men  are  all  stomach."  As  a  rule,  we  prize  our 
stomachs  higher  than  our  brains.  Remember  that 
when  a  man  is  obliged  to  economize,  he  begins  by 
stopping  his  journals ;  he  thinks  he  can  afford  to 
dispense  with  mental  food. 

AVhen  I  say  the  teacher  is  like  unto  the  cook,  I  do 
not  mean  to  exclude  the  other,  a  more  vital,  part  of 
his  duty,  which  consists  in  training  the  child.  He  is 
to  be  at  all  times  both  a  teacher  and  a  trainer.  I 
merely  mention  this  to  avoid  a  misunderstanding 
which  might  arise  in  your  mind,  as  to  the  importance 


K;         KDVCATIONAL    TOPIC fi   OF   THE   DAY. 

of  the  tcHclu'i-'s  profession ;  but  I  answered  your 
(liii'sUon,  "  How  do  you  impart  knowledge?  " 

And  now  your  second  question  :  "  What  method  do 
yon  prefer  for  young  children?"  I  seriously  think 
tliat  you  are  not  quite  aware  of  what  the  word  method 
signilies.  When  Shakspeare  said,  "Though  this  be 
madness,  yet  there  is  method  in  it,"  did  he  use  the 
word  "method"  correctly?  Or,  when  a  corn-doctor 
advertises  his  method  of  cutting  corns  to  be  far 
superior  to  that  of  any  other  doctor,  does  he  use  the 
word  "  method  "  correctly  ?  Reflect  upon  these  two 
cases,  and  then  listen  to  this  definition :  Method  is 
a  loaij  of  reaching  a  given  end  by  a  series  of  acts  which 
tend  to  secure  it.  There  can  be  no  question  as  to 
Shakspeare's  correct  use  of  the  word.  In  our  days,  the 
word  "method"  has  fallen  into  disrespect  by  abuse. 
The  educational  journals  are  full  of  small,  insignificant 
devices,  all  termed  methods,  which  are  nothing  else 
thau  variations  of  one  and  the  same  thing.  People 
confound  mere  mannerism  with  method.  Let  me 
quote  an  authority  on  this  subject,  —  Dr.  Soldan  of 
8t.  Louis  :  — 

"Perhaps  this  difference  between  method  and  man- 
ner will  appear  better,  if  we  use  an  illustration  which 
is  supported  by  the  etymology  of  the  word  'method.' 
Suppose  it  is  proposed  to  establish  a  connection 
between  two  cities.  For  this  purpose,  a  road  is 
made.  Tliis  road  will  be  used  by  all  that  go  from 
one  city  to  the  other,  and  by  all  kinds  of  individuals : 
it   is   the   same   road   for   all,    and   not   liable   to   be 


OPKX  LETTERS   TO  A    TOUXG   TEACHER.      17 

cliauged  1)\'  iiuUvidiiiil  whims  or  notions.  But  the 
manner  in  which  the  road  is  used  varies  very  much  : 
some  will  walk,  others  will  run,  and  others  still  will 
ride.  The  road,  in  onv  illustration,  ro[)resents  the 
method  in  pedagogias.  It  may  he  used  by  the  most 
widely  dirferent  individuals  :  the  way  in  which  people 
make  use  of  it  is  the  manner.  Manner  cann<jt  be 
thoroughly  specified  or  defined.  Here  the  utmost 
freedom  must  l)e  allowed  to  teachers  and  pupils,  to 
develop  their  own  individualities." 

SECOND  LETTER. 

*'  SIMII-IA    SIMILIIUS    CUn.VNTUR." 

Mv  DKAu  Young  Fkiend, — You  desire  my  advice 
as  to  what  to  do  in  a  case  of  chronic  laziness  in  a 
pupil.  It  is  verv  diflicult  to  advise  by  correspond- 
ence,—  just  as  difficult  as  it  is  for  a  physician  to  cure 
a  patient  without  a  proper  diagnosis  made  in  his 
presence.  Still,  there  are  general  rules  evolved  from 
numerous  analogous  cases,  principles  deduced  from 
practice,  which,  if  applied,  may  cover  the  case  in 
question.  I  should,  therefore,  when  brought  face  to 
face  with  the  necessity  of  punishing,  try  to  ai)ply  the 
principles  underlying  all  punishments  and  rewards. 
One  of  these  is,  Punishment  should  be  in  harmony 
with  the  offence. 

This  sounds  rather  philosopinc,  but  it  is  eminently 
[practical  in  its  application.  According  to  this  rule, 
you  would  "keep  in"  a  child  who  came  late   in  the 


18         EDUCATION M.    TOI'K'S   OF  Till':    hJY. 

morninjT,  as  many  mimitcs  as  its  tardiness  ninouiited 
to.  Accordiiii^  to  the  same  rule,  you  would  withdraw 
your  conlidence  from  a  child  who  is  given  to  prevari- 
cating. According  to  the  same  rule,  you  would  cor- 
porally j)unish  a  child  who  has  been  found  cruelly 
tortiu'ing  an  animal  or  a  schoolmate ;  that  is,  you 
would  make  him  feel  pain,  so  that  he  may  understand 
paiij. 

The  homopopathists  in  their  medical  practice  follow 
the  principle,  '■'•  Siniilia  simiHbus  curaafiir'''  (like 
things  are  cured  by  like).  Now,  if  you  will  boar  in 
mind  that  a  punishable  child  is  a  morally  diseased 
child  who  is  to  be  treated  properly  in  order  to  be 
cured,  you  will  see  that  there  is  a  remarkable  similarity 
between  the  teacher's  and  the  i)hysician's  practice. 
Not  that  I  mean  to  say  that  the  teaching  should  be 
done  in  homoeopathic  doses.  Heaven  forbid  !  Let  us 
be  allopathists  in  that.  But  in  punishing,  and  more 
especially  in  rewarding,  we  must  be  humceopathic  by 
all  means. 

Now,  my  dear  young  lady.  I  can  imagine  how  j'our 
lustrous  blue  eyes  fairly  twinkle  with  the  mischievous 
desire  to  nonplus  me  by  asking,  "  If  I  am  to  apply 
the  rule,  '  Like  cures  like,'  how  am  I  to  apply  laziness 
in  order  to  cure  laziness?  Or,  take  a  case  of  uncleau- 
liness?"  It  is  a  fairly  victorious  smile  with  which 
you  propose  this  question  ;  yet,  my  young  friend,  your 
question  is  easily  answered.  Teriliit  me  to  frame  my 
answer  in  my  own  way,  by  (list  introducing  it  by 
general  remarks. 


OPEN   LETTKltS    TO    A    YOlWd    TK.K  IIKH.       10 

Preaching  al)oiit  faults,  and  a<lin()iiisliiiig,  never  yet 
improved  tlie  morals  antl  manners  of  any  one,  parlieu- 
laily  not  those  of  a  ohild,  who  is  not  able  to  eom[ir(!- 
hend  your  good  intention  or  your  doctrine.  Tlie 
child's  ethical  feeling  is  blunted  liy  much  fault-linding 
and  blaming.  There  is  scarcely  a  fault  in  human 
nature  but  wiiich  can  be  successfully  eradicated  in 
early  youth,  provided  the  proper  remedy  be  applied, — 
a  rem-ed}'  suitable  to  the  individuality  of  the  child. 
We  are  very  apt  to  use  "heroic  means," — l)rutal 
means,  we  mean,  but  dare  not  say  so.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact,  that  the  first  boy  in  a  numerous  family  is 
oftencr  punished  cori)orally  than  all  the  other  children. 
As  the  [)arents  advance  in  years,  their  discretion  and 
dire  experience  teach  them  better  niotles  of  training. 

And  now  to  our  case  of  laziness.  I  was  not  the 
oldest  in  a  line  of  five  children,  nor  the  youngest,  for 
which  I  offer  thanks  devoutly  and  fervently  to  Ilim  who 
thus  decreed  it.  I  escaped  the  rod  at  one  end  of  the 
line,  and  being  spoiled  at  the  other.  I  remember  with 
remarkable  vividness,  that,  when  I  was  about  ten 
years  of  age,  I  had  a  "  s[)ell  of  laziness."  Not  only 
was  I  lazy  in  school,  but  also  at  home.  You  know, 
or  ought  to  know,  that  there  are  times  in  whith  a 
child  (be  it  from  i)hysical  or  psychical  causes)  is  more 
or  less  indolent;  a  time  in  which  he  hates  school,  does 
his  tasks  carelessly  if  at  all,  and  is  bent  upon  things 
foreign  to  any  tiling  like  duty.  Puuishuient-cxercisi's, 
increased  demands  ui)on  his  activity  (such  as  writing 
a  list  of  words  ten  times),  only  increase  the  unwilling- 


20         EDl-CATIOSAL    TOl'KJS    OF   THE   DAY. 

ness  to  \v<jik  ;  coriK)!':!!  pmiisliinciit  iiiukcs  llie  child 
morose  and  obstinate.  ]Most  teuelieis  (tiiid  I  use  the 
word  most.,  advisedly)  stand  before  sueli  a  case  as 
before  an  cniguia  whose  solution  ought  not  to  ha 
difficult. 

Listen  to  what  my  wise  father  did.  "When  the  fust 
teacher's  note  came  home,  announcing  my  sliding  into 
disgrace,  he  looked  at  me,  but  said  not  a  word ;  I 
noticed,  though,  that  his  watchful  eye  was  ever  ui)on 
me  for  a  number  of  days.  A  week  afterward  another, 
this  time  rather  lengthy,  letter  came  by  mail,  set- 
ting forth  my  shortcomings  and  failings.  My  father 
read  it  to  me,  and  then  said,  "  I  see,  m}'  boy,  you 
are  bodily  weak.  I  think  you  are  growing.  I'll  keep 
you  home  from  school,  and  give  you  a  chance  to 
recuperate.  You  need  not  work  at  all  until  yon  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  better  for  you  to  work 
than  to  do  nothing." 

Who  could  have  been  happier  than  I?  I  thought 
my  father  the  wisest  of  mortals,  and  then  proceeded 
to  enjoy  a  chapter  or  two  of  "  Robinson  Ci'usoe  ; "  but, 
lo !  father  mine  took  the  book  out  of  ni}-  hands,  sa}'- 
iug  with  a  benign  smile,  but  with  a  badly  concealed 
twinkle  in  his  eye,  "  Reading  will  hurt  your  eyes,  and, 
wdien  bending  over  the  book,  3'our  back  will  suffer." 
AVell,  I  "did  not  see  it,"  but  obeyed;  taking  up  a 
kitchen-knife  (you  know  that  is  always  the  sharpest  in 
the  house)  to  whittle  a  mast  out  of  a  chip  to  rig  my 
boat.  Again  father  mine  interdicted,  saying  something 
of  repose  needed  for  the  muscular  system.     Just  then 


OPEY   LETTERS    TO   A    YOUXd    TEACH  Eli.      21 

motlun-  needed  coal  in  the  kitchen,  and  caUed  nie  to 
fetch  liei-  some.  I  jumped  up  with  delight,  read}' 
to  go  to  tlie  coal-shed.  l>ut  father  mine  sagely  re- 
marked, I  must  not  be  disturbed,  lest  my  growing 
bones  might  suffer  ;  and  then  went  (jut  with  the  coal- 
bucket. 

I  l)egan  to  doubt  the  wisdom  of  that  father  of  mine. 
But  then  it  was  delicious  to  lie  on  the  lounge,  and  do 
nothing,  so  I  stictchcd  myself  ready  for  a  nap.  I 
had  scarcely  fidlen  asleep,  when  I  was  rudely  awakened 
l)y  a  wet  ice-cold  cloth,  which  father  mine  had  api)lied 
to  ray  head,  saying  I  evidently  had  a  headache,  and  he 
meant  to  cure  his  dear  boy.  To  make  a  long  story 
short,  1  was  not  permitted  to  do  any  thing,  —  work 
was  prohibited,  arau.sement  prevented.  Yet  I  got 
through  the  first  day  without  dying  of  ennui.  I  even 
got  through  the  second  day  :  at  the  end  of  which  my 
belief  in  father's  wisdom  was  (irmly  re-estal)lislied,  for 
I  now  saw  clearly  that  he  meant  to  cure  laziness  by 
laziness,  or  like  by  like. 

Still,  3'oung  as  I  was,  I  did  not  mean  to  be  out- 
witted, and  braved  out  another  day  ;  but  ask  me  not 
to  describe  it.  I  was  not  of  a  phlegmatic  temper ;  and 
you  may  imagine  how  I  felt  all  thiough  that  long, 
weaiy  day,  which  seemed  to  me  to  be  tlie  bigger  half 
of  eternity.  On  the  evening  of  the  third  day  1  "  caved 
in,"  and  announced  that  I  "  guessed  "  I  was  again 
strong  enough  to  attend  school  on  tlie  morrow.  .My 
fatlier's  face  beamed  witii  happiness,  that  his  dear  boy 
should  have  been  cured  so  soon  ;  he  had  been  prepared 


22         EDVCATIOSM.    TOl'ICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

to  hold  the  fort  afijainst  "  dciDon  diligcnco  "  a  week, 
Imt.  if  1  tlioii.ulit  my  streiigtli  liad  ictiinied,  I  might 
tiv  scliool-wurk  next  (hu'.  And  .s<^  I  did  ;  l)Ut  I  carried 
a  U'tter  to  my  teacher  in  which  the  secret  of  my  cure 
was  not  nientioiu'cl,  for  which  omissicjii  I  inwardly 
(very  inwardly,  rest  assured)  thanked  my  father. 

I  rememl)er  well  that  one  of  my  sisters  was  treated 
similarly  when  she  had  her  spell  of  indijlcnce.  AN'hen 
she  appeared  in  the  kitchen,  mother  would,  with  much 
solicitude  for  her  health,  say  that  steam  might  hurt  her 
lungs.  When  she  proceeded  to  sew  for  her  dolls,  it  was 
sai<l  she  must  not  exert  herself.  When  she  wished  to 
take  a  walk  with  the  other  children,  she  was  com])elled 
to  lie  on  the  sofa,  etc.  With  knowing  glances  I 
watched  the  course  of  treatment.  It  was  amusing 
for  me  to  see  father  and  mother  act  in  harmony  with 
a  consistency  which  could  not  deserve  a  better  purpose. 
It  had  the  same  salutary  effect  as  in  my  own  case. 

Now,  my  dear  young  friend,  your  victorious  smile 
has  disappeared,  —  almost,  not  quite,  for  j-et  yoy  have 
something  in  petto.  "  What  of  the  ivant  of  cleanli- 
ness? "  you  ask;  "  how  will  you  cure  that?  I  cannot 
perceive  what  remedy  will  cure  that,  except  good  ex- 
ample." 

I  knew  a  boy  who  was  the  terror  of  his  mother  on 
account  of  his  criminal  disregard  of  appearances. 
Dirty  face,  soiled  and  torn  clothes,  muddy  boots,  etc., 
—  I  need  not  further  enumerate:  the  boy  is  b}'  no 
means  an  exce[)tion.  I  advised  her  to  apply  my 
homoeopathic    principle.     She   entered    upon    the  idea 


OPEX   LETTERS    TO   A    YO!\(;    lEM  IIEU.       23 

with  eiilluisiasin,  and  was  siicce.s.sfiil.  This  is  tlio  v.ay 
she  proccedod  : — 

"  Hugo,  your  clothes  are  always  torn  ;  you  are, 
therefore,  accustomed  to  wearing  Un-n  clothes.  I  shall 
henceforth  abstain  from  mending  your  [)antaloons  and 
jackets."  The  boy  cared  nothing,  and  soon  wore  out 
his  best  "  Sunday -go-to-meeting  suit,"  as  well  as  his 
every-day  clothes.  When  he  called  for  a  clean  collar 
or  a  handkerchief,  mother  would  offer  him  a  soiled  one, 
cast  aside  by  his  brother,  as  being  good  enough  for 
him.  The  t)oy  protested,  but  with  no  avail.  Finall}' 
his  clothes  became  dangerously  dilai)idated,  especially 
his  breeches  at  a  certain  unnamable  i)lace.  He  asked 
for  a  new  pair;  an  old  pair  cast  off  by  his  bigger 
brother  was  offered  as  "good  enough  for  him."  In 
short,  the  boy  was  soon  convinced  that  cleanliness  is 
next  to  godliness ;  for  his  .young  playmates  fell  off 
from  him  like  friends  in  need,  of  whom  it  is  said  that 
a  hundred  weigh  no  more  than  an  ounce.  The  other 
boys  disliked  to  play  with  such  a  wretched-looking  fel- 
low ;  and  he  soon  li'arneil  tlie  bitter  lesson,  that,  despite 
all  inner  value,  ai)i)earances  play  a!i  imi)ortant  rule  in 
lift'. 

Well.  T  hope  to  have  convinced  you.  my  fair  young 
friend,  of  the  truth  that  •'  like  cures  like  "  in  pedagogy 
as  well  as  in  medicine.  IModify  these  examples,  change 
the  mode  of  procedure  to  suit  the  circnmstan<-es  of 
scliDol.  and  you  lia\i'  powerful  levels  for  casfs  of  la/i- 
uess  and  want  of  cleanliness. 


24         EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 
rilIRD   LETTER. 

CAUSE  AND    KFriXT  ;    OK,  HOW    TO    KICKP    VOLTNG. 

My  happy  YoiJNG  Fiuend,  —  It  is  a  serious  ques- 
tion wliieh  you  ask  me  in  your  reply  to  my  last  letter, 
—  more  serious  than  you  in  your  sweet  innocenee 
think  ;  serious  and  in)i)ortant  because  it  concerns  the 
very  essence  of  success  in  teaching,  as  well  as  in  every 
other  domain  of  human  activity.  Pardon  me  if  I  quote 
your  words:  they  are  too  pithil}' framed  to  be  buried 
ignominiously  in  the  waste-basket.  "  Do  tell  me  how 
I  can  keep  young.  Our  superintendent,  a  venerable 
old  gentleman  with  a  wrinkled  face,  as  full  of  acidity 
as  a  persimmon,  remarked  sageh'  on  the  platform : 
'  Teachers  must  endeavor  to  keep  young.'  I  hadn't 
the  heart  to  ask  him  for  his  own  elixir,  fearing  he 
would  prescribe  a  remedy  which  would  make  a  mummy 
of  me  in  fewer  years  than  it  did  of  him.  But  he  said 
it  with  such  an  air  of  conviction  that  1  felt  there  must 
be  some  deep  truth  in  it.  Now  3'ou,  dear  Doctor,  have 
so  happy  a  disposition,  that  if  tlie  advice  had  come  from 
3'ou  I  should  have  believed  it  implicitly.  Do  tell  me 
the  secret  of  preserving  youth.  Looking  around  at  my 
numerous  fellow-teachers,  1  notice  many  sour  faces, 
which  speak  of  disappointment,  weariness,  and  au^* 
thing  but  serenity  and  preserved  youth.  Shall  1  be 
like  them  in  a  few  years?  " 

Well,  my  dear  friend,  Pindar,  the  great  Greek  poet 
and  contemporary  of  Pericles,  said  that  in  the  laud  of 


rH'KS   LETTERS   TO   A    YOINC    TEACIIEH.      25 

the  departed  it  was  spring  all  the  year  around.  If  the 
teacher's  work  is  to  lie  snecessfiil,  it  must  he  done  in 
continual  spring  air:  neither  m  the  iey  atmosphere  of 
cold  reason  and  cutting  sarcasm,  nor  in  the  withering 
heat  of  passion.  While  the  brow  of  the  merchant, 
artisan,  or  day-laborer  may  be  clouded  witliout  greatly 
interfering  with  the  progress  of  the  work  he  is  perform- 
ing, the  countenance  of  the  teacher  must  be  sunshiny 
and  bright.  From  her  heart  must  forever  issue  forth 
a  stream  of  cheerfulness,  because  her  disposition  is 
reflected  in  the  susceptible  souls  of  her  pupils. 

It  is  said  that  interest  acts  upon  the  learner  as  sun- 
shine and  moisture  do  upon  the  vegetable  germ  in  the 
ground.  Nov/,  the  most  important  source  of  interest 
is  the  love  for  the  teacher.  A  sour,  moody  temper 
will  effectually  kill  the  affection  of  the  pui)ils,  while 
ciieerfulness  will  awaken  it.  '"Cheerfulness,"  says 
Jean  Paul,  "  is  the  sky  under  which  ever}'  thing  flour- 
ishes exul)erantly,  save  poison."  While  I  readily 
grant  that  cheerfulness  is  not  deiXMulent  upon  age,  I 
notice  that  it  is  more  fi-etjui-ntly  found  in  \outli.  Your 
sui)erintendent,  therefore,  is  right  in  his  advice  ;  and 
he  is  the  more  sincere  in  it  since  he,  perhai)s,  feels  the 
want  of  it  in  himself. 

Now,  for  the  sources  of  this  everlasting  youth  and 
vigor.  I  like  to  speak  in  similes.  The  Greek  mythol- 
ogy speaks  of  a  giant  whom  Hercules  had  to  conquer. 
During  the  coni)>at,  Hercules  observed  that  the  giant 
lost  his  strength  when  lie  was  lifted  up  fioni  the 
ground,  and  that  his  strength  returned  when  he  touched 


2C)         KDrCATlDNAh    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

''  Mollicr  Kaitli  "  ;i;j;:iiii.  This  is  ji  proper  illustration 
of  your  ease.  To  roinaiii  young,  means  to  preserve  an 
interest  in  every  thing  and  everybody  surrounding  you. 
This  looks  like  a  more  formidable  task  than  it  reall}' is. 
Teachers  very  fre(iuently  resemble  the  man  who  digs 
a  hole  into  the  ground,  and  throws  the  soil  up  around 
the  edge  of  the  hole.  The  deeper  he  digs,  the  higher 
becomes  the  embankment,  and  the  smallei-  his  horizon 
of  vision.  That  is  to  say,  being  occu[)icd  with  small 
tlioughts,  little  things,  weak  and  childish  efforts,  in- 
significant trifles  (significant  enough  for  both  pu[)ils 
and  teacher  in  theii-  work,  but  insignificant  in  regard 
to  otlier  things  going  on  in  the  world),  they  are  apt  to 
lose  sight  of  what  goes  on  in  the  community,  among 
the  people,  —  in  fact,  upon  the  world's  stage. 

To  avoid  this  atrophy  of  thought,  you  must  be  a 
diligent  reader,  and  read  at  least  one  good  daily 
paper,  one  bright,  sparkling  weekly  educational 
jouiual,  and  several  literar}-  monthlies.  The  daily 
will  keep  you  an  fait  with  events  in  your  immediate 
surroundings ;  the  educalionnl  journal  will  give  ^'on 
wise  advice,  new  thoughts  and  suggestions  for  3'our 
professional  work,  and  will  preserve  j'ou  from  sinking 
into  that  detestable  swamp  called  self-sufficiency  and 
self-satisfaction.  A  teacher  who  reads  an  educational 
journal,  and  profits  by  it.  will  never  consider  herself 
"finished."  The  excellent  monthlies  (I  am  not  an 
agent,  and  therefore  abstain  from  enumerating  them) 
are  so  admirably  conducted,  that  they  set  before  you 
a    palatable  menu    of   historical,  scientific,  and    other 


literarj*  essays,  thoiight-l)oaring  and  therefore  tlioiight- 
awakciiiiig.  Do  not  fall  into  the  terrible  mistake  of 
reading  journals,  newspapers,  weeklies,  niontiilies, 
etc..  indiseriniinatoly  l>y  the  dozen.  It  we;ikons  your 
intellect  and  your  memory,  as  over-eating  will  weaken 
the  digestion.  You  need  to  read  good  books,  (ictitious 
and  otherwise.  I  trust  to  your  good  sense  and  still 
better  taste,  that  you  will  not  squander  your  time  in 
reading  trashy  novels.     So  much  for  the  intellect. 

Now  for  3'our  emotions.  To  keep  3'oung,  means  to 
preserve  the  power  to  love.  —  love  for  children,  and, 
for  that  matter,  love  for  the  grown  folks  too.  Love 
for  children  necessitates  that  you  should  interest 
youisclf  in  their  homes  :  their  private  affairs  are  your 
affairs  also.  A  knowledge  of  then-  home  surroundings 
is  al)solutely  necessary  for  you  to  understand  their 
dispositions,  their  susceptil)ilities,  their  sensd)ilities,  112 
fact,  their  entire  beings.  If  some  thoughtless  person 
should  consider  you  a  crank  for  thus  interesting  your- 
self l)e\ond  tlie  schoolroom  m  the  children's  affairs, 
let  me  comfort  you  by  saying  that  the  crank  /.s  one 
of  the  moat  necessary  devices  for  mechanical  motion. 
There  is  not  a  machine  without  a  crank  :  and  woe  to  a 
body  of  teachers,  a  community,  or  an^"  body  of  peo[)le, 
without  at  least  one  crank  !  Be  you  the  crank,  the 
craidv  of  never-wearying  affection .  interest,  solicitude, 
kindness,  and  charity,  to  your  school ;  and  the  glow  of 
enthusiasm  ami  the  wainitli  of  iiiaternnl  love  will  keep 
you  young,  thougli  you  iiuiN'  be  covered  with  the 
mimic  bnow  of  age. 


28         K1)V(!ATJ0\AL    rOI'fCS   OF   THE   DAY. 

lint,  you  may  say,  keeping  3'ouiiii;  in  mind  and  in 
heart  is  not  Ivee|)in<^  young  in  body.  What  sliall  1  do 
to  keep  young  in  l)ody':'  The  everlasting  principle  of 
cause  and  effect  holds  good  in  this  also.  It  is  said, 
'■'Mens  Sana  in  corpore  nana;"  and  the  opposite  is 
true  also.  That  is  to  say,  happiness,  a  cheerful  dis- 
position, and  a  l)right  mind,  have  their  inevitable 
beneficial  effects  upon  the  body.  They  promote 
bodily  health.  Again  a  simile  may  illustiate  a  point. 
A  hot-house  plant  withers  when  placed  in  the  open 
air ;  and.  alas  !  most  schoolrooms  are  hot-houses,  in 
the  literal  sense  of  the  term.  They  are  invariably 
over-heated.  Keep  the  temperature  to  65°  F.,  and 
have  the  prudence  to  hang  your  thermometer,  not  tea 
or  twelve  feet  above  the  floor,  for  safe  keeping,  as  I 
found  it  some  time  ago  in  one  of  my  schools,  but  only 
two  or  three  feet  above  it ;  in  other  words,  in  that 
stratum  of  air  in  which  the  children  are  compelled  to 
abide. 

Not  only  the  temperature,  but  also  the  composition 
of  the  air,  should  be  considered.  Therefore,  ventilate 
your  room.  Ventilation  is  derived  from  ventns,  the 
wind  ;  and  therefore  ventilation  implies  circulation  or 
agitation  of  the  air.  As  often  as  possible,  therefore, 
change  the  air  in  your  room  completely.  Yours  and 
your  pupils'  rosy  cheeks,  elastic  gait,  gay  spirit, 
bright  looks,  and  happy  disposition  will  be  preserved. 

And  last,  but  not  least,  don't  worry.  '•  Sufficient 
unto  the  day  is  the  evil  thereof."  Don't  talk  and 
think  "  shop  "  all  the  time.     Nothing  ages  so  much  as 


or  EX   LETTERS    TO   A    YOVXG    TEACH  EU.      29 

a  burden  of  worry.  Above  all,  do  not  worry  about  the 
results  of  exaiuinatioiis.  Be  social,  but  do  not  keep 
late  hours.  Engage  in  some  work  totally  diffeient 
from  the  work  done  in  sciiool.  Hear  a  good  concert 
now  and  then.  Be  hai)[)y,  and  seek  tlie  coni[)anY  of 
happy  peoi)le.  Seek  the  chance  to  laugh  heartily  as 
often  as  i>ossible. 

I  shall  not  engage  in  telling  j'ou  what  to  do  in  cases 
of  sickness,  but  will  conclude  with  a  little  advice  which 
may  seem  outlandish,  but  is  eminently  sound.  As  a 
rule,  the  Americans  have  very  little  imagination  ;  they 
pride  themselves  on  being  dry,  matter-of-fact  people. 
Look  at  the  Germans,  and  see  what  happy  peoi)le  they 
are,  even  in  old  age  '  It  is  one  of  the  postulates  of 
German  education,  that  imagination  must  be  fostered. 
In  Germany,  fairy-stories  are  indulged  in  in  youth  to 
a  much  greater  extent  than  is  done  in  this  country. 
Goethe's  motlier  was  one  of  those  happy  persons  who 
see  even  on  the  darkest  cloud  a  rosy  border,  whose 
temper  is  never  ruffled,  who  sing  and  laugh  and  dance 
through  life,  and  who  l)eautify  the  lives  of  all  who 
associate  with  them.  She  invented  numerous  fal)les 
and  faiiy-stories  for  her  children,  and  liked  to  tell 
them  to  her  boy  Wolfgang.  When  she  was  well 
advanced  in  years,  and  her  son  had  reached  the  high- 
est height  of  fame  and  glory,  she  was  asked  how  it 
came  that  Wolfgang  resembled  her  so  much  in  thought 
and  action.  "Ah,"  said  she,  "Wolfgang  and  I  were 
yoiuig  together."  (io  thou,  my  dear  young  friend, 
and  do  likewise. 


30         KDUCATIOXAL    TOPICS    OF   T/Ih'    />.!)'. 

I  ciiiiiiot  close  my  letter  without  :i  soleiiiii  word  of 
ceiisiiie.  Ileverence  for  old  iige  will  not  make  you  old 
before  your  time,  especially  if  tiiat  revereuce  is  shown 
to  a  superior  olllcer  such  as  your  superintendent.  You 
ma}'  not  consider  your  words,  as  quotetl  above,  meant 
to  be  irreverent;  but  they  sound  like  it.  Av^oid  even 
the  appearance  of  irreverence. 

FOURTH  LETTER. 

THE    OLD,    OLD    QUESTIOX. 

]\[v  DEAR  YoiNG  L.VDY,  —  You  are  in  distress  again, 
you  say,  because  you  fail  utterly  in  suppressing  nois^c 
in  the  schoolroom  ;  particularly  is  it  "  demon  whisper" 
that  will  not  down.  You  write,  "  Of  course  it  would 
be  foolish  to  punish  the  children  for  communicating ; 
but,  having  several  grades  of  ptipils  in  one  room,  I  am 
compelled  to  leave  one  or  two  of  them  to  themselves, 
that  is,  give  them  something  to  do,  while  my  attention 
is  engaged  with  another  grade.  Now,  I  cannot  watch 
them  constantly.  Shall  I  appoint  monitors  to  do  the 
watching?     If  not,  why  not?" 

Your  letter  calls  up  in  my  mind  a  similar  experience 
of  my  own.  ^Vhen  I  was  young  in  years, —  for  young 
in  heart  and  mind  i  propose  to  be  till  my  dying  day,  — 
I  taught  a  school  in  the  countr}'.  My  room  was  joined 
to  another,  and  in  these  two  rooms  two  teachers  were 
engaged  in  teaching  two  hundied  and  sixteen  i)upils  ; 
I  had  the  *■•  bigger  half  "  of  that  number.  Like  your- 
self, I  thought  I  had  to  suppress  whispering  and  noise  ; 


oi'i:y  LKJ  Thus  TO  A    yoixt;  tjj.k  jij:i;.     31 

and  I  cini)loyed  even  so-called  heroic  means  to  stamp 
it  out  of  my  school.  Like  yonrself,  I  gave  the  pupils 
something  to  do,  it  mattered  little  what.  I  failed 
utterly.  One  day  my  colleague  mildly  suggested  that 
I  made  my  life  and  that  of  my  pui)ils  wretched  to  no 
purpose.  "  For,"  said  he,  '■'•  you  try  to  sMp[)ress  all 
noise,  aiming  at  a  (inietude  in  which  a  pin  may  he 
heard  falling.  The  school  ought  not  to  be  like  a 
churchyard,  l)ut  like  a  workshop,  in  which  work,  hard 
work,  and  much  work,  is  performed.  "Work  imi)lics 
nioti(jn  ;  moti<^n  imi)lies  noise.  There  must  I)e  always 
a  certain  degree  of  bustle  and  noise  in  a  school. 
Where  it  is  suppressed,  I  pity  the  children." 

Of  course,  this  remark  was  so  just  and  wise,  that  I 
concluded  to  prolit  by  it ;  anil  I  have  never  since 
rued  it. 

But  you  do  not  mean  that  kind  of  noise  which  is 
the  inevita!)le  companion  of  earnest  work.  Vou  mean 
noise  which  is  made  unnecessarily,  and  is  the  outcome 
of  mischievtnis  intention.  The  old  apoeryi)hal  wiiter 
Siracli  wrote  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago  upon 
the  subject,  suggesting  to  employ  children  in  order 
to  keep  them  out  of  mischief.  Now,  the  dilTerence 
between  employment  for  the  hand,  and  fruit-beai'ing 
work,  is  very  glaring.  In  order  to  make  the  pupils  do 
the  work  assigned,  with  interest,  it  is  essential  tliat 
the  assigned  task  should  bi'  in  stiict  harmony  willi 
what  you  have  prepared  with  them  :  in  other  words, 
you  must  awaken  inten-st. 
t    For  instance,   if   they  read    a   story   in   ihcir  reader 


i>2       KDnWTiosAL  Tories  of  tiik  day. 

which  tlicv  likc<K  it  would  be  well  to  a.sk  them  to  copy 
that  storv  iiici-ly  for  you.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  tht'V  "ill  go  to  work  quietly,  and  do  what  is  asked 
of  tlu'Ui.  If  you  have  piei)aie(l  the  number  lesson, 
as  every  lesson  in  arithmetic  should  be  prepared, 
uuMitally,  then  set  them  to  work  to  solve  similar 
lirol)lcuis.  Kncnving-  how  to  go  to  work,  it  is  again 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  will  make  good  use 
of  their  time.  If  they  have  had  a  lesson  in  orthog- 
raphy, such  as  words  with  "  ough,"  ask  them  to  find 
a  dozen  or  more  words  in  their  reader  that  contain 
'•ough."  Again  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they 
will  evince  much  interest  in  finding  such  words.  If 
they  had  a  lesson  in  geography  on  river-systems  and 
kindred  topics,  ask  them  to  trace  the  Mississippi,  or 
whatever  other  river  you  may  choose,  and  to  write  out 
the  names  of  its  tributaries  in  two  columns  ;  the  right 
tributaries  in  the  right,  the  left  tributaries  in  the  left 
column. 

In  fine,  I  mean,  every  task  to  be  done  by  the  hand 
should  be  prepared  in  an  oral  lesson  preceding  it. 
You  may  rest  assured  that  every  undefined  or  poorly 
understood  task  gives  rise  to  disturbances  of  various 
kinds,  like  communication  in  whisi)er,  annoying  ques- 
tions to  the  teacher,  consulting  of  books  and  slates, 
etc. 

Acting  upon  this  advice,  you  will  find  that  the 
amount  of  whispering  and  noise  will  greatly  decrease, 
if  not  vanish  entirely.  But  be  sure  to  make  the  tasks 
reasonably   short.     If   they    are    too   long,    or   if   the 


OPEN  LETTERS    TO   A    YOUXG   TEACHER.      33 

time  allotted  for  them  is  too  long  for  <loing  the  work, 
the  cliildren  will  seek  relief  in  all  sorts  of  distractious, 
of  which  whispering  is  the  favorite. 

It  will  never  do  to  scold  the  [)ii|»ils  for  seeking 
relief.  Always  look  for  the  cause  of  the  troiil^le  in 
yourself.  Teach  rationall}',  assign  tasks  which  you 
are  sure  can  l>e  i)erforme(l,  and  you  will  not  need  to 
suppress  the  *•  demon  whisper."  Of  course  this  mode 
of  acting  will  not  permit  the  teacher  to  sit  on  her 
throne  of  idleness, — that  is,  at  her  desk.  She  must 
be  constantly  moving.  She  must,  even  when  hearing 
another  class,  keep  an  eye  upon  those  wlio  are  quietly 
at  work  ;  must  even  go  through  the  aisles,  and  inspect 
the  v»ork  going  on,  helping  here  a  lame  duck,  suggest- 
ing there,  mildly  and  quietly,  reprove  where  it  is 
necessary  ;  iu  short,  act  like  the  motive  power  in  a 
machine. 

Oh,  j'es,  I  see  a  veil  falling  over  your  lustrous  blue 
eyes  ;  and  a  reproachful  glance  strikes  me.  b}-  which 
you  moan  to  convey,  ""How  shall  I  be  able  to  stand 
such  exhaustive  work?  Will  it  not  wear  one  out  in  a 
short  while?"  No,  m\'  dear,  it  will  not:  it  is  not 
neai-  as  exhaustive  as  one  good  round  sally  of  reproof 
and  scolding.  Anger  causes  loss  of  vitality  much 
.sooner  than  those  quiet,  pleasant,  helpful  ways,  and 
the  quiet,  willing  work  of  the  children.  I  am  sorry 
to  say  that,  if  it  should  wear  you  out,  you  must  lind 
consolation  in  the  cruel  statement,  that  the  schools  are 
not  made  for  the  I)etter  acconnnodation  of  teachers. 

As  to  monitors,  do  not  app<jint   any.     They  cause 


34         EDUCATION  A  I.    TOl'KH    OF   Till':    DAY. 

more  niisclii(!f  tli:iii  cmii  be  righted.  I  lisive  seen 
cliiklieii  grow  :il)s()lutely  wicked  by  ucliiig  as  monitors. 
Hatlier  uppeal  to  tlieir  liner  sense  of  honor,  tlum 
phiee  one  of  their  nnniber  over  them  to  wateh  tlicm. 
It  engenders  a  feehng  of  i)ride  in  the  monitor,  and  a 
feeling  of  resentment  in  those  who  are  re[)orted  as 
transgressors. 

I  have  a  personal  and  exceedingly  nnpleasant  ex- 
perience "with  monitors,  which  leads  me  to  be  thus 
outspoken.  When  1  was  a  boy,  I  went  to  a  school 
whose  teacher  was  master  of  the  Chair  in  a  INIasonic 
lodge.  He  was  frequently  called  to  assist  at  burials  of 
brethren,  and  he  alwa^'S  i)lace(l  a  monitor  from  out 
of  our  ranks  over  us.  One  day  the  n)onitor  repoited 
that  Klem  deserved  punishment.  Now,  theie  happened 
to  be  two  Klemms  in  that  school.  —  one  who  s[)elled 
his  name  with  one  m;  the  second,  myself,  who  spelled 
his  name  wit!i  two  m's.  The  teacher  grasped  the 
nearest,  and  lammed  him  most  furiously,  sa3ing,  "■'  I 
will  teach  you  rascals  how  to  behave  when  I  am  out !  " 
I  happened  to  be  the  unfortunate  one.  The  monitor, 
harboring  ill  feeling  against  me,  did  not  arrest  the 
teacher's  arm.  He  stood  by  without  saying  a  word, 
until  tlie  process  of  inllicting  a  wliolesome  lesson  was 
concluded.  Then  he  coolly  info)ined  the  teacher  that 
he  guessed  he  had  better  begin  over  again  witli  the 
other  Klem,  who  spelled  his  name  with  one  m.  It 
is  l)arely  possible  that  this  incident  prejudiced  me 
against  monitors  in  o;eueral. 


OPEN  LETT:  US    TO   A    YOUyd    TEACH  Eli.      35 

FIFTH    LETTER. 
SKiyrcii  OF  A  (iooi)  school. 

IMV    INTERESTING    YoUNG     FuiKM).  111    roply    to    IllV 

last  open  letter,  you  have  the  kindness  to  say  that 
iny  i)ersonal  reminiscences  are  interesting,  and  that 
you  desire  to  hear  more  of  them.  I  can  imagine  how 
brimful  of  laughter  you  must  have  been  when  you 
saw  your  stately  friend  whipped  by  mistake  ;  but  I 
assure  you,  though  the  job  was  done  well,  it  was 
not  appreciated  by  me  at  the  time.  I  cannot  record 
another  case  of  that  kind,  nor  would  it  do  to  palm  off 
every  corporal  punishment  which  fell  to  my  lot  as 
having  been  inflicted  by  mistake.  Nor  weie  all  the 
teachers  I  had  like  the  one  I  mentioned. 

In  order  to  make  these  letters  instructive  as  well  as 
amusing,  I  will  p:-oceL>d  to  draw  the  outlines  of  what  I 
consider  a  good  school.  The  task  is  very  easy.  I  will 
take  you  into  the  school  which  I  attended  from  my 
tenth  till  my  sixteenth  year.  There  is  a  great  cry 
hcai-d  in  the  laud,  that  [xipils  are  obliged  to  study  too 
many  l)rau('lu'S.  This  is  an  erroneous  statement.  The 
dilliculty  li(>s  elsewhere.  It  is  not  the  numln-r  of 
branches,  l)ut  th*'  manner  of  studying  tliem,  that  causes 
dissipation,  rermit  ine  to  sketch  the  way  we  were 
taught  in  the  school  mentioned  altove.  Wi\  had  two 
Janguages,  Latin  and  French.  To-ihiy  I  rcmcuilier 
very  liltlc  of  my  Latin,  but  a  good  deal  of  mv  Fii'iich. 
Why?     The    Latin    was    taught    to    us    vcr\    much    in 


3('>        KDUVATIONAL    TOl'ICS    OF   Till-.    DAY. 

tlic  \v:iy  of  :i  [xist-inoitcin  examiuatioii.  There  was 
IK)  I>:itiM  eonvcisatioii,  no  Latin  composition;  nothing 
l»nt  )iiun(huni  traiishitioii  and  veritable  dissecting  was 
done.  Our  Frencli  teacher  permitted  no  translations  : 
all  was  life  in  liis  k-ssons.  lie  talked  to  us  in  French; 
wc  caught  the  jironuneiation.  made  use  of  our  limited 
vocabulary,  and  in  a  short  while  we  boys  used  French 
as  if  it  had  been  our  mother-tongue.  Wc  had  mathe- 
matics, but  no  text-book.  We  never  saw  a  text-book 
of  mathematics.  All  we  were  required  to  have  was  a 
ruler,  a  compass,  and  a  number  of  note-books.  The 
teacher  supplied  the  subject  matter.  AVe  had  astro- 
nomical and  physical  geograph}',  and  as  text-books 
nothing  more  than  an  atlas,  and  drawing-materials  for 
drawing  maps.  Tlie  teacher  was  supi)lied  with  a 
tellurian,  relief  maps,  and  other  appliances. 

We  had  geology,  zoology,  and  botany,  and  a  text- 
book for  all  three  branches  no  larger  than  a  primer. 
The  school  was  supplied  with  a  set  of  illustrative 
charts,  and  a  well-stocked  museum  of  natural  history, 
which  contained  a  plentiful  set  of  minerals,  stuffed 
animals,  an  herbarium,  and  numerous  preparations  of 
2>(ipier-mache.  We  had  anatomy  and  physiology,  but 
no  text-book  for  these  branches.  Instead  of  that  we 
had  a  comi)lete  skeleton,  a  manikin,  colored  charts, 
and  numerous  preparations  of  papier-machi^  plaster- 
of-paris,  and  rublier.  We  had  history,  and  a  teacher 
whose  cheeks  grew  red  with  enthusiasm  when  he  nar- 
rated to  us  the  glorious  deeds  of  ancient  and  modern 
nations.     Our  text-book  contained  sixty  pages  ;  it  was 


OPEN   LETTERS    TO    A     YOVNC    TEACH  Ell.      37 

a  little  pamphlet.  Oh  tlie  wonderful  moments  when 
we  listened  to  him  with  li:ited  breath  !  We  weie 
Greeks  with  Pericles,  (artiiaginians  with  Ihmnilial. 
Romans  with  C;csar,  Goths  with  Theodorie,  Fiaiiks 
with  Charlemagne,  Swedes  with  (Justaviis.  rrussians 
with  Fredeiick,  Knglishmeu  with  Maill)Oioiigh,  Anieii- 
cans  with  ^Vashinglou. 

We  had  natural  {(hilosopliy.  and  a  lal)oratory  in  the 
basement.  We  had  history  of  literature,  and  a  libraiy 
of  several  thousands  of  the  best  books.  We  had 
rhetoric  and  elocution,  without  even  knowing  tluit  we 
were  studying  these  branches :  it  was  done  in  a  practi- 
cal way,  that  resulted  in  efforts  not  to  be  despised. 
We  had  drawing  and  singing  ;  we  had  gymnastics  and 
excursions.  In  fact,  our  course  of  study  was  a  very 
complex  thing ;  but  we  obtained  a  goodly  stock  of 
knowledge,  and  a  fair  degree  of  skill,  because  we  were 
made  to  acquire  them  by  self-activity. 

Here  is  an  example  of  a  lesson  in  zoology :  The 
stuffed  swan  was  brought  into  the  class.  The  })rofessor 
stated  the  characteristic  features  of  the  swimming 
birds;  then  we  were  caUed  upon  to  find  these  features 
in  every  other  species  or  family  of  swimming  birds, 
wiiieli  latter  were  exhibited  either  in  nutura  or  in 
pictures.  Then  things  were  discovered,  and  accur- 
ately stilted,  which  prove<l  llieir  dissimilarity.  Thus, 
around  that  one  stulTed  bird  was  grouped  all  our 
knowledge  of  such  birds.  Afterward  we  had  to  write 
down  what  we  had  le.irned.  And  this  latter  pro- 
cedure  was  llic    best    thing    of   all  ;    for  it   was    taki'n 


3.S         EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DAY. 

for  <;i;iiit('(l  tli.'it  wc  knew  nothing  of  a  snl)j(.'et  nnloss 
we  could  UKikc  it  clear  to  others.  .S<jnK'tini(!S  tin  oral 
Ktatenient  was  sullleicnt,  but  it  had  to  l)e  co]ni)lctL' : 
no  essentials  were  peiinitted  to  slip  our  notice.  AVhen 
review  week  came,  the  pupils  weie  allowed  to  catechise 
each  other.  Through  all  these  studies  there  was  notice- 
able the  red  thread  of  language-instruction.  All  in- 
struction was  instruction  in  language ;  and  we  were 
trained  in  an  easy  and  elegant  use  of  the  mother- 
tongue  without  the  i)araphernalia  of  parsing  and  dis- 
secting, —  simply  In'  a  careful  use  of  the  language. 

Each  class  made  frequent  excursions  into  shops, 
mills,  factories,  and  into  the  woods.  When  Ave  went 
into  the  woods,  each  one  of  us  was  armed  with  a 
small  hammer  for  breaking  minerals,  pincers  for  dis- 
secting i)lants  and  blossoms,  pins  to  fasten  insects 
on  cork  or  our  hats,  and  a  tin  box  hung  over  the 
shoulder  b}'  means  of  a  strap.  No  one  was  without 
his  note-book,  in  which  he  entered  a  sketch  of  the 
journey,  and  new  names.  Ten  pennies  (two  and  one- 
half  to  three  cents)  for  a  glass  of  milk  at  a  farmhouse, 
and  a  roll  of  bread,  was  enough  to  keep  body  and  soul 
together.  What  au  indescribable  charm  these  excur- 
sions had  to  us ! 

We  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Marathon  over 
again,  not  in  sunny  Attica,  but  on  a  pasture  or  a 
stubl)le-rield  nearer  home.  I  shall  remember  to  my 
dying  day,  that,  much  to  my  regret,  I  had  to  attack 
the  Pass  of  Thermopyl;\i  on  the  side  of  the  Persians. 
In  the  Ncauder  Valley   we   dug   up  remains  of  pre- 


OPEN   LETTEIIS    TO   A     YOrNG    TEACIJEIi.      ?)9 

historic  men.  Onr  professor  in  history,  then  :i  ni:iii 
in  the  prime  of  life  (may  kind  Providence  grant  him 
a  liappy  okl  age!)  stood  in  the  midst  of  his  pupils, 
and  with  glowing  cheek,  and  tlie  chest-toue  of  con- 
viction, told  us  how  brave  Frederick  had  defeateil  tiie 
French,  and  sent  them  flying  across  the  Rhine  ;  and 
amid  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Falkenburg  he  made 
clear  to  us  the  victory  of  modern  thought,  and  civil 
virtue,  over  the  old  feudal  syst^;m. 

All  our  knowledge  was  experience^  not  dry  book- 
wisdom.  Coming  home  from  such  an  excursion,  or 
from  a  visit  in  a  factory,  we  could  scarcely  wait  to 
get  a  meal,  so  eager  were  we  to  write  down  an  account 
of  what  we  had  seen  and  learned.  School  was  a 
perfect  paradise  to  us.  Our  school-bag  was  not  heavy. 
The  intercourse  between  pupils  and  teachers  was  very 
pleasant,  because  the  teacher  shared  all  the  hardshi[)S 
with  us  ;  and  a  case  of  truancy  was  uniicard  of. 

And  now  I  come  to  the  best  feature  of  our  school. 
There  was  no  rivalry  among  the  pupils  (the  worst  kind 
of  mental  dissipation),  cxcei)t  in  this :  that  each  one  of 
us  strove  hard  to  be  recognized  as  "Primus"  of  his 
class  for  good  deportment.  That  was,  a  great  honor  ; 
for  to  the  "Primus"  was  intrusted  the  class-journal, 
that  imi)ortant  book  upon  the  leaves  of  which  were 
immortalized  liie  (lower  of  the  schoc^l.  And  there  was 
no  i)er-cent  system  of  marking  and  grading.  Every 
examination  consisted  of  compositions  (except  in 
mathematics).  So,  for  instance,  in  physiology  or  any 
one   of    the    branches    we  studied,    a    limitetl   number 


40         EDUCATION  A  I.    TOI'K'S   OF   THE    DAY. 

of  themes  were  given  out ;  each  pu|)il  coiikl  choose 
one,  and  write  as  complete  a  dissertation  as  possible. 
These  productions  were  not  gauged  on  a  scale  of  one 
hundred,  for  that  would  have  necessitated  little  matter- 
of-fact  questions  which  embraced  nothing  but  bare 
facts.  The  examination  papers  were  either  satisfac- 
tory, or  they  were  not ;  in  the  latter  case  a  second 
examination  was  required  after  a  few  weeks. 

It  will  easil}'  be  seen,  tliat  we  were  required  to 
learn  much  ;  l)ut  it  will  equally  easily  be  seen,  that 
we  did  learn  a  great  deal  more  than  we  could  have 
learned  from  books.  But  despite  the  multitude  of 
studies,  there  were  no  mental  cripples  among  us. 
Each  one  went  to  the  limits  of  his  capacity.  All 
this  was  owing  to  the  methods  pursued. 

SIXTH  LETTER. 

STIMLLANTS    IN    TEACIIIXG. 

My  young  Friend, —  I  was  amused  and  astonished 
that  mj'  remarks  about  competition  in  school,  and  my 
slur  at  marking  and  grading,  which  you  had  found 
in  my  fifth  letter,  should  have  disturbed  your  mind. 
You  ask  me  why  I  think  that  daily  marking  of  pupils' 
work  is  an  objectionable  practice,  amounting  to  a 
crime?  I  hasten  to  answer,  and  hope  to  show  you 
the  criminal  aspect  of  the  case. 

Now  and  then  we  find  teachers  who  spend  the 
Itctter  part  of  their  school -hours  in  marking  their 
pupils'    work,    and   recording   results.      That   this    is 


OPEN   LETTEns    TO   A    YOUNfi    TEACIIEU.      41 

considered  a  perfectly  legitimate  practiee,  may  be 
seen  from  the  fact  tliat  class  iecord-l)lanks  are  pnl»- 
lished  in  great  number,  which  make  this  marking  of 
lessons  a  special  feature  of  school-work.  The  main 
argument  of  teachers  who  use  such  blanks  is,  that 
they  need  something  to  stimulate  their  pupils'  activity. 

Some  of  them  are  firm  believers  in  the  temperance 
or  abstinence  cause,  and  if  any  one,  diunkard  or 
otherwise,  in  their  presence  should  claiu)  that  he  needs 
alcoholic  drinks  to  stimulate  his  ai>petite,  these  truly 
virtuous  teachers  would  be  horiitied  to  hear  it :  yet 
they  do  a  similar  thing  in  school,  and  do  it  with  a 
vengeance.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  a  good 
healthy  person  needs  no  stimulants.  Food  is  taken 
willingly,  digested  and  assimilated  readily,  without 
the  aid  of  stimulants  ;  provided,  always,  the  organs 
of  digestion  are  in  prime  order.  It  is  only  jaded 
appetites  which  crave  stimulants. 

Now,  if  a  teacher  claims  that  without  the  use  of 
marks  and  similar  paraphernalia,  such  as  rewards 
(praise,  cards,  presents)  and  punishments,  she  can- 
not make  her  pupils  work  and  study,  it  is  also  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  their  intellectual  appetites  are 
jaded,  —  in  other  words,  that  they  have  been  brought 
ui)  from  the  earliest  primary  grade  on  a  diet  of  stimu- 
lants ;  or,  that  the  intellectual  food  she  offers  is  so 
unpalatable,  stale,  or  tasteless,  that  an  aitilicial  stimu- 
lant, such  as  a  AVorcestershire  sauce  of  marks,  is 
needed  to  make  it  "  go  down." 

Don't  talk  of    ambition  needing  to  be    btinuilaled  ! 


42        EDUCATIONAL    TOJ'K'S   OF   THE   DAY. 

Every  hoalthy  organism  will,  at  regular  Ktatecl  inter- 
vals, demand  food,  and  develop  an  appetite.  And 
so  will  a  healthy  yonngster  want  intellectual  food, 
without  being  stiumlated  by  an  appetizer  in  the  form 
of  a  reward  or  punishment.  Reward  should  only  be 
given  for  any  thing  done  in  excess  of  duty,  and 
punishment  for  neglect  of  dut}'. 

In  all  our  teaching  we  should  look  toward  the  re- 
quirements of  actual  life.  It  is  a  well-knowMi  fact, 
that  in  life  the  simple  performance  of  duty  is  not 
rewarded.  It  is  not  even  fully  paid  ;  and  it  seems 
extremely  hazardous  to  accustom  our  boys  and  girls 
to  expect  a  reward  for  simply  doing  their  duty. 

Naturally,  experienced  teachers  will  sa}',  in  the 
foregoing  argument,  we  presuppose  our  pupils  to  be 
normall}'  endowed  with  intellectual  appetites :  expe- 
rience, however,  teaches  that  that  is  a  fallacy.  To  this 
I  answer :  Dyspepsia  is  not  an  hereditary  disease,  l)ut 
iuvarial)l3"  the  sequence  of  maltreatment.  That  treat- 
ment may  date  back  to  infancy,  but  in  some  period 
of  the  child's  life  maltreatment  has  made  the  organs  of 
digestion  weak.  It  ma}'  be  granted,  even,  that  there 
is  a  tendency  to  dj'spepsia  in  the  new-born  child,  just 
as  there  may  be  a  tendency  to  tuberculosis  ;  but  with 
careful  treatment  the  tendency  could  be  overcome. 

Now,  view  ps3'chological  organs  as  we  do  physiolo- 
gical ;  and  we  may  sa}',  maltreatment,  at  some  stage 
of  the  child's  life,  is  the  cause  of  this  Apparent  neces- 
sity for  using  stimulants  in  teaching.  No  sane  person, 
endowed  with  five  senses,  is  left  without  an  undving 


OPEN   LETTKliSy    TO    A    YOrxa    TFACIIKU.      4o 

ck'siro  to  acquire  knowkHlne.  Now,  fi'fd  the  cliild 
with  iiidigi'stibh'  sole-li-athtT,  such  as  learning  rules 
from  the  printed  i)age  before  they  are  applied,  tested, 
and  exi)eri('nce(l  liy  the  learner,  and  soo'.i  the  neces- 
sity of  stimulants  will  make  itself  felt.  Pupils  whol 
are  taught  rationally,  according  to  the  laws  of  l)sy-j 
chology,  never  need  stimulants  nor  appeals  to  thei/ 
ainl)ili()n. 

Fancy  a  teacher  marking  hourly,  daih',  weekly,; 
monthly,  annually,  recording  results,  linding  averages,! 
and  copying  them  on  rei)ort  cards  to  he  sent  home  ! 
Does  she  not  resemble  tlic  kornak  on  the  elephant's 
back,  pricking  and  stabbing  the  poor  beast  to  make 
him  luiiry  up?  There  is  too  much  disregard  for  the 
dignity  of  the  child  exhibited  in  the  schools  of  our 
country,  which  cries  for  redress. 

I  have  come  to  distrust  a  teacher  who  practises 
marking  the  pupils'  exercises;  and  in  all  my  many 
years  of  experience  I  have  discovered,  in  the  end,  that 
this  distrust  is  well  founded.  He  is  invariably  a 
l)eison  who  (iuds  it  too  laborious  to  ac(piaint  himself 
with,  and  obey,  the  laws  of  psychology ;  and  who 
considers  the  i)osition  of  a  slave-driver  more  pleasant 
than  that  of  a  gardener  of  children,  who  knows  that 
education  is  a  growth. 

And  now  you,  my  dear  young  lady,  will  ask,  and  I 
should  consider  you  a  pooi'  logician  if  you  did  not 
ask:  "■  I  understand  you,  then,  to  mean,  that,  from 
the  very  start  in  the  earlii'st  primary  grades,  the 
marking  should  be  abandoned.      IJut  what  would  you 


44         KDUCATIONAL    TOl'JCS   OF   THE   DAY. 

do  in  higher  grades,  where  the  marking  and  grading 
have  become  a  custom?  Would  you  suddenly  abandon 
it  there  too?  "     A  simile  may  answer  you. 

In  a  sanitarium  for  inebriates,  which  I  visited  last 
year,  I  found  this  practice  in  vogue :  Every  inmate 
owned  a  bottle,  which  the  phj'sician  had  in  charge. 
Every  morning  the  bottle  was  lilled  with  choice  liquor, 
and  whenever  the  patient  desired  a  drink  during  the 
day,  he  went  to  the  oflicc,  asked  for  his  bottle  (which 
was  labelled  with  his  name),  and  took  his  drink  under 
the  eyes  of  his  medical  adviser.  But  before  he  handed 
it  back  a  pebble  was  thrown  into  the  bottle,  which 
decreased  the  cai)acity  of  the  bottle  by  just  the  size 
of  the  pebble.  I  was  told  that  when  the  bottle  is  filled 
with  pebbles  the  patient  is  usually  cared  of  his  immod- 
erate love  for  drink.  Hand  in  hand  with  this  slow  but 
sure  decrease  of  the  quantity'  of  liquor  goes  an  increase 
of  strength  gained  b>'  suitable  treatment,  such  as 
physical  exertion,  excellent,  nutritious  food,  elevating 
conversation  and  occu[)atiou. 

This  should  show  you  the  way  out  of  the  dilemma, 
my  friend.  Slowly,  and  with  true  conservative  spirit, 
decrease  the  use  of  marks  and  grades.  Let  them 
slowly  sink  into  disregard.  Do  not  be  hasty  about  it. 
Meanwhile  make  your  teaching  as  interesting  as  you 
can  possibly  make  it.  Pay  due  regard  to  the  individual 
tastes  of  your  pupils,  and  your  school  will  inevitably 
become  what  it  ought  to  be,  —  a  garden,  not  a 
penitentiary. 


OI'EN    LKTIEIIS    7'0   A    YOUNG    TKACllKR.      45 
S  FA' EXT  1 1   LETTER. 

TE  VC 1 1  KllS '    KX  A  M I X  ATI  OKS . 

Mv  iNTRRKSTixG  YouNG  FuiKND,  —  It  is  a  pleasurc 
to  correspond  with  3-ou,  and  I  am  very  sorry  tliat  you 
forbiil  uie  to  quote  you  because  you  fear  to  be  de- 
tected. Fear  not.  If  yours  had  l)een  the  onl}-  case 
in  which  my  discretion  had  been  aj)i)ealed  to,  I  niii^ht, 
perhaps,  be  found  wanting  ;  but  you  know  1  a>n  in  the 
years  of  advanc-ed  principles,  —  as  was  said  of  the  ohl 
maid,  when  the  poet's  [wliteness  would  not  allow  him 
to  admit  that  she  was  old, — and  with  age  discretion 
develops  wonderfully. 

I  understand,  then,  that  your  certificate  runs  out, 
and  that  in  order  to  secure  a  new  one  you  must  subject 
3'ourself  to  an  examination.  But  I  understand,  also, 
th:it  you  do  not  fear  the  ordeal,  iiuvuiiz;  i)rep:ircd  your- 
self thoroughly.  Yet  you  are  not  without  some  mis- 
givings ;  I  fully  understand  that.  Indeed.  I  should 
have  them  too:  I  have  a  vivid  reineniltrance  of  some 
of  the  many  occasions  on  which  I  trembled  in  my 
boots,  for  I  am  a  much-examined  man.  Nor  do  1 
blame  you  for  feeling  uneasy  at  the  approaching  ex- 
amination, for  teachers'  examinations  in  this  country 
are  verj'  much  of  a  lottery'.  They  are  as  diffeivnt 
from  teachers'  examinations  in  (iermany,  as  a  game 
of   keiio   is   fruni   a  game  of  cliess. 

What  is  the  certillcati'  to  signify?  Certainly,  the 
ability  to  teach,  and  a  documentary  |»i()t)f  of  the  fact 


40         KDVCATIOXAL    TOI'ICS   OF   THE    DAY. 

that  you  [josscss  tlio  necessar}'  amount  of  knowledge. 
But  ask  3'oiirself,  Is  tlie  certificate  which  you  now  liold 
a  documentary  proof  of  your  ability  to  teach?  You 
may  say,  "  Yes,  because  it  distinctly  states,  iu  black 
on  white,  that  I  have  the  requisite  knowledge,  and  am 
tlu!i('foic  entitled  to  accept  an  a[)poiutment.  Does 
not  that  mean  I  am  able  to  teach?"  No,  my  young 
friend,  it  does  not.  It  merely  means  that  you  have 
the  necessaiy  amount  of  knowledge  which  you  would 
need  in  case  you  were  called  upon  to  teach  ;  l)ut  it  does 
not  convey  the  idea  that  you  have  the  ability  to  teach. 
Knowing  is  one  thing,  and  being  able  to  do  is  another. 
Knowing  the  multiplication-table  does  not  carry  with 
it  the  abilit}'  to  teach  it.  Knowing  how  to  analyze 
a  sentence  does  not  carry  with  it  the  ability  to  teach 
grammar  and  language.  And  even  if  it  did,  it  would 
not  make  a  disciplinarian  of  you. 

See  what  the  law-students  have  to  do.  They  go 
through  a  practical  course  in  a  lawyer's  office.  They 
go  into  court,  and  listen  to  the  arguments  and  practices 
of  full-Hedged  lawyers.  They  note  the  decisions  of  the 
judges.  They  copy  briefs  and  other  documents,  and 
try  their  hand  at  composing  them  for  the  inspection 
of  their  masters.  Then  after  several  years  of  practical 
work  of  that  kind,  and  after  having  acquired  the  neces- 
sary routine  and  amount  of  knowledge  of  the  law,  they 
present  themselves  before  the  board  of  examiners,  and 
there  are  subjected  to  an  oral  as  well  as  written  ex- 
amination. AVheu  they  are  admitted  to  the  bar.  tin  y 
have  acquired  not  only  the  desired  amount  of  kuowl- 


OPEN   LETTKUS    TO    A    YOUNO    TEACIIEU.      47 

etlge,  but  also  a  skiil  in  applying  it.  Now,  when  you 
went  before  the  board  of  examiners  for  the  first  time, 
you  had  no  sivill  in  teaching;  you  came  fresh  from  the 
seminary,  and  had  to  liive  proofs  of  your  knowledge, 
but  not  of  your  skill  in  applying  it.  At  present,  after 
two  years'  expeiience,  you  iiave  acquired  a  great  deal 
of  skill,  and,  perhaps,  lost  some  of  that  vast  (  ?)  amount 
of  dry  knowledge. 

Now  see  what  the  physicians  do.  The  case  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  lawyers.  Students  of  medicine  have 
to  attend  the  eiinic.  Tliey  are  obliged  to  accompany- 
thc  attending  physician  upon  his  rounds  through  the 
hospital.  Thev  are  asked  to  jirescriiie,  and  to  state 
what  they  would  do  in  this  or  that  case  ;  in  fine,  are 
prepared  in  the  only  i)ractical  and  successful  way  to 
become  good  physicians,  —  uamcly,  in  accordance  with 
the  well-known  proverb,  '•  Practice  makes  the  master." 

I  remember  the  examination  I  had  to  pass  in  Prussia. 
It  was  an  ordeal,  and  there  was  no  sham  about  it,  real 
or  otherwise.  For  several  days  we  "  aspirants  "  were 
examined  orallv  in  all  the  branches  the  course  of  study 
prescribed.  This  was  done  very  searchingly.  Then 
followed  a  day  of  written  examinations,  on  which  three 
dissertations  had  to  be  Cnrnishcd.  After  tiiat  followed 
several  days  of  leaching.  Every  candidate  (aspirant) 
was  assigned  a  lesson.  To  my  lot  fell  the  geograph}' 
lesson,  one  in  mental  arithmetic,  and  one  in  singing. 
It  is  true,  the  lessons  were  siiort  ;  but  it  does  not  take 
long  for  any  rational  examiner  to  see  whether  a  person 
has  the  ability  to    handle  a  class  and   teach    luciiUy. 


48         EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE   DAY. 

Let  me  iickiiowledge  tli:it  :it  tli:it  ordeal  I  (iiinkcd  ;  but 
much  dcponded  upon  it,  and  therefore  I  conquered 
myself. 

As  a  matter  of  self-evidence  the  examiners  did  not 
mark  us  on  a  scale  of  cue  hundred.  Their  marks  were 
as  follows :  very  good,  good,  mediocre,  poor,  very 
poor.  As  a  proof  of  tlie  tiioroughness  with  which  the 
examination  was  held,  I  will  betray  the  fact,  that  one 
of  the  young  men,  whom  we  considered  the  best  of  the 
students,  a  walking  c\-clopaedia,  failed  in  the  lessons 
which  he  had  to  give,  and  a  certificate  was  denied  him. 
Another  who  had  given  excellent  lessons,  and  who  was 
certainly  a  born  teacher,  failed  in  passing,  because  he 
could  not  solve  the  Pythagorean  problem.  All  this 
may  seem  strange  to  3-ou  ;  l)ut  when  I  compare  our 
count}'  teachers'  examinations  here  in  Ohio  with  the 
examinations  held  in  Germany,  I  cannot  help  but  wish 
that  a  revival  would  take  place  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic. 

Here  only  a  written  examination  is  required  upon  ten 
matter-of-fact  questions  in  each  branch,  —  questions  as 
narrow  Jis  a  i-azor  ;  such  as,  "  Where  was  the  conven- 
tion held  that  nominated  Haj'es  for  the  presidency?" 
This  question  is  not  a  fictitious  one  ;  yet  when  a  person 
has  been  successful  in  this  written  examination  upon 
(juestions  that  are  as  remote  from  the  j'oung  teacher's 
actual  duties  in  the  schoolroom  as  the  moon  from  the 
earth,  she  is  awarded  a  certificate  which  says  in  sub- 
stance that  ^liss  or  Mr.  80-and-so  is  entitled  to  teach 
for  one,  two,  three,  or  five  years,  as  the  case  may  be, 


OPEN  LETTERS    TO    A     YOl'XC:    TEAfllEU.      49 

implying  thci-ewith  that  slio  oi-  lio  lias  tlio  aliility  to 
leach.  It  is  a  leniblo  outrage,  aiul  one  tiiat  lias  Ijcen 
the  source  of  much  mischief. 

A  manufacturer  does  not  ask  an  applii'ant  for  work 
whether  he  knows  the  names  of  certain  tools  and  otiier 
things,  but  whether  he  can  work  with  them.  When  I 
want  a  good  shoemaker,  I  do  not  ask  him  whether 
he  has  knowledg  '  of  political  economy,  hut  whether  he 
can  make  a  shoe  ;  and  the  test  to  which  I  would  subject 
him  would  be  a  very  jjractical  one.  But  strange  be- 
yond compi-ehciision  it  is,  that  this  practical  nation, 
this  nation  of  common-sense,  shoidd  be  so  short-sighted 
as  to  test  applicants  for  teaching  only  in  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  knowledge  they  [)ossess,  and  not  with  refer- 
ence to  their  skill  in  ai)plyiug  it. 

El  (HIT  1 1  ij:ttt:r. 

riArioiTv  IN  ur.(  iTAriov. 

jNIv  iiappv  Yotxo  Fkikni),  —  Do  not  iiesitato  in 
giving  nttorancc  to  a  question  like  yom-  hist  oxw.  Jt 
is  of  moie  weight  than  it  may  seem  to  you.  You  ask, 
"Am  1  right  in  insisting  upon  the  utmost  swiftness  in. 
answering  to  the  call  for  reciting?  "  I  siiould  say  Yes, 
if  you  expect  tlic  answer  to  be  a  recital  ;  but  I  should 
cmphaticall}-  say  No,  if  the  answer  is  not  to  consist 
of  something  which   has  been   memorized. 

You  see,  as  to  quickness  in  answering  the  teacher's 
(piestions,  or  (to  use  a  more  technical  term)  as  to 
rai)idity  in  conducting  recitations,  I   hold  a  somewhat 


50         KDrCATfONAL    TOI'KS    OF   THE    DAY. 

dilTcreiit  opinion  from  tluit  so  freqiionlly  advocated  in 
.educational  periodicals.  This  is  said  with  due  respect 
for  the  conviction  of  others.  :uid  the  arguments  they 
present.  Let  ns  first  ask,  Wiiat  is  a  recitation?  It 
is,  and,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  can  be,  nolhinir 
else  than  a  "  verbal  i-i'pi'titioii  of  something  learnetl  or 
committed  to  memory"  (Webster).  Now,  then,  I 
grant  willingly,  that  in  a  case  where  something  is,  or 
has  been,  learned  l)y  heart,  this  swiftness  in  answering 
the  call  for  recital  is  proper,  judicious,  and  pi-ofitable. 
It  causes  not  only  a  skill  in  making  use  of  these  intel- 
lectual tools  in  an  exact  manner,  but  also  assurance 
and  self-reliance  in  the  [jupil. 

But  the  next  question  will  be,  IIow  far  is  this 
memorizing  by  rote  to  go?  Or,  wliat  is  to  I)e  learned 
by  iieart,  so  that  it  be  "•  I'ecitetl  "  ?  Why,  multipli- 
cation-tables, and  a  few  other  things  which  are  of 
insigniiicance  in  comparison  with  the  vast  amount 
of  conversation  l)etween  teaciier  and  pu[)ils  which  can- 
not be  called,  and  should  never  be,  a  "  reciting."  A 
more  advanced  opinion  is,  that  the  results  of  teaching 
which  wdll  last  beyond  the  school  years  are  acquired 
in  a  different  way  :  I  mean,  by  comprehending  facts, 
turning  them  this  way  and  that  way,  and  ny  constantly 
applying  them  in  different  ways  and  forms.  All  this 
needs  time,  needs  tliought,  or  rather  the  act  of  think- 
ing, and  in  some  eases  even  a  moment's  investigation 
by  means  of  the  senses  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 
Almost  every  good  thought  is  produced  slowly  ;  it  luis 
to  be  stripped  of   all   the   many  fetters  that  seem   to 


OPEN  LETTERS    TO    A    YOU  NO    TEACHER.      51 

koop  it  tied  down  ;  and,  that  done,  it  noods  must  he 
dressed  in  good  language,  ni'(/!i'ji''  not  being  adinissiltlc. 

Will  not  the  tendency  to  hiilliant,  rapid  recital  lead 
us  liack  to  the  antiquated  method  of  teaching,  which 
had  the  enviable  quality  of  not  being  a  method  at  all? 
Will  not  this  brilliant,  rapid  recital  kill  the  thorough- 
ness advocated  by  pedagogical  classics,  with  which 
they  showed  us  how  to  unfold,  to  unveil,  to  develop 
the  mind?  It  may  be  stixte<l,  in  order  to  strengthen 
the  argument,  that,  as  far  as  instruction  goes,  the 
mind  is  the  pruicipal  thing ;  not  grannnar,  reading, 
aritlnnetic,  geography,  botany,  or  i)liysics,  etc.  The 
latter  are  means,  not  ends,  of  education ;  the  ends 
are  to  strengthen  the  inborn  powers  of  the  children, 
of  which  memory  is  only  one,  and  by  no  means  the 
most  imi)ortant. 

Let  the  pupils  forget  the  many  details  of  these 
branches  after  they  leave  school  :  tlieii-  minds  will  have 
grown,  and  if  the  man}'  details  which  we  would  allow 
the  pui)il  to  forget  are  obtaiiu'd  in  the  right  way,  and 
not  merely  h^irned  by  the  tongue,  they  will  not  be 
lost  after  ali.  Riches  thrown  into  our  lap  will  soon 
diminish,  and  ])c  squandered  ;  but  what  we  have  earned 
by  hard  labor,  and  saved  under  sacrifices,  to  that  we 
cling,  and  it  clings  to  us.  A  kind  of  teaching  which 
resembles  this  hard  labor,  by  which  the  child's  wits 
are  brought  to  work,  will,  as  may  safely  be  allirmed, 
admit  of  no  such  rapid  "  recital  "  as  is  so  fre(pieutly 
advocated . 

Nor  are,   in  my  opiiiinn.  tin-   brilliant  [)upil.s   (lliose 


52         EDIJCATIOXAI.    TOI'ffS   OF  THE    DAY. 

who  show  olf  in  u  "■  rcoitation  ")  tlie  oiios  that  make 
stronji;  men  and  women.  Nay,  I  am  led  to  tliink  tliat 
the  ai)i)arently  dull  ones  win  the  laurels  over  the 
former.  Here  is  an  example :  I  know  a  gentleman 
who  would  be  considered  a  rather  poor  pupil,  if  ho  sat 
Among  sehool-ehildren,  as  far  as  this  rapidity  is  con- 
cerned. AVhatever  he  says,  he  says  with  hesitation, 
constantly  weighing  his  sentiments;  his  words  some- 
times follow  each  other  so  slowly,  that  he  resembles 
the  miser  wiio  turns  the  penny  in  his  hand  several 
times  before  he  gives  it  away.  But  see  how  precise 
he  IS  in  his  statements  ;  see  the  absolute  truth  in  them  ; 
see  the  logic  underlying  them  !  That  man  is  a  deeper 
thinker  than  scores  of  others  ;  he  has  a  clearer  insight 
into  every  thing  his  mind  ever  api)roachcd  ;  and.  what 
is  bearing  upon  the  question  under  discussion,  he  has 
learned  moi'e,  by  grasping  slowl}'.  than  a  great  many 
others  who  grasp  quickly  and  forget  quickly. 

Are  we  not,  in  our  tendency  to  rapidity  ni  teaching, 
falling  into  the  same  fault  that  is  attributed  to  the 
whole  nation,  —  fastness,  superficiality?  Have  we  not 
too  much  of  that  skimming  reading,  superficial  think- 
ing, and  blind  following  of  authority,  in  this  country' ? 
Are  we  not  increasing  it?  Do  not,  my  dear  30ung 
lady,  regard  these  questions  as  conclusive  arguments, 
but  take  them  for  what  they  are  meant,  —  inquiries  of 
a  troubled  mind,  that  wishes  for  deliverance  from  the 
painful  sensation  of  hurrying  open-eyed  into  danger. 

It  seems  to  me  there  is  a  physical  danger  in  this 
rapidity  of  conversation,  also  (I  am  '•  at  loggerheads  " 


OPE.y   LETTERS    TO    A    YOU  NO    TEACHER.      53 

with  the  tonn  "recitation"),  in  school.  This  (liiuiicr 
consists  in  wearing  out  teachers  aiul  pupils.  I  know 
a  vigorous,  active,  and  in  fact  (to  use  a  slang  term) 
dashing  teacher.  Whenever  I  see  her  teach,  I  i)er- 
ceive  that  her  nerves  are  so  active  that  her  finger-tips 
seem  ready  to  dance  fandango.  May  I  not  attribute 
the  weariness  and  lassitude  of  the  children  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  literally  worn  out  when  school  is 
out?  They  cannot  do  work  at  homo.  Is  not  the 
absence  of  this  mad  rapidity  the  reason  why  pupils  in 
Germany  can  l)e  called  upon  to  do  a  lil»eral  sliarc 
of  their  school-work  at  home?  I  merely  slrew  this 
in  as  a  suggestion.  Perhaps  I  am  wrong.  And  now  a 
siiiiile. 

A  schoolroom  with  a  teacher  who  stiives  for,  and 
obtains,  rapidity  in  teaching,  resembles  a  hot-house. 
Every  plant  in  it  is  beautiful  to  look  at;  they  all  show 
off  in  dazzling  colors  of  all  kinds.  If  the  children 
could  remain  in  that  schoolroom,  it  would  be  a  good 
thing  for  —  the  schoolroom. 

But  see  the  plants  droop  if  you  place  them  in 
another  ground,  in  another  aii-.  in  other  surroundings. 
The  brilliancy  vanishes,  the  blossoms  and  leaves  soon 
drop,  and  the  real  valuable  parts  of  the  plants,  the 
stems  ami  liianriies.  the  root  and  germ  of  life,  are 
preserved  :  thev  possess  what  will  keej)  the  plant 
alive  ;  they  adapt  themselves  to  tiie  new  surroinidings  ; 
they  go  through  the  [)rocess  of  aeelimatization.  So 
with  the  pu[)ils.  What  has  become  part  of  their  very 
selves,  what  has  taken  root  in   their  minds,  and  what 


54         EDUCATIONAL    TO/'ICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

has  1)0011  slowly  ijatliored  liy  the  moiiiory  .'iftcr  it  went 
through  tlio  mill  of  roason,  and  comprehension,  that  — 
But  why  picture  a  thing  which  is  self-evident,  and  not 
disputed  ? 

NINTH  LETTER. 

COXTINIITV    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

]My  nrcAR  Young  Frikno,  —  Permit  me  to  quote 
fj-om  3'our  letter:  "  When  addressing  our  Teachers' 
Institute  on  the  subject  of  'Principles  of  Method,' 
you  mentioned  one  which  I  failed  to  understand. 
First,  you  dwelt  upon  the  necessity  of  starting  with 
sense-perception ;  and  my  own  expeiience  furnished 
me  with  abundant  evidence  of  its  truth.  Then  you 
emphasized  that  svml)ols  should  follow,  not  precede, 
objects ;  and  your  explanation  of  this  princi[)le  was  as 
lucid  as  your  illustrations  were  impressive  and  con- 
vincing. But  your  third  principle,  '  Instruction  must 
be  continuous,'  remained  obscure  to  me.  May  I  ask 
you  to  explain  it  in  the  '  American  Teacher,'  a  journal 
which  offers  the  benefits  of  a  normal  school  to  us?" 
—  Yes,  with  pleasure. 

The  easiest  way  to  satisfy  you  would  be  to  seud 
you  to  Webster,  who  defines  continuity  as  being  an 
uninterrupted  connection,  a  close  union  of  parts,  a 
cohesion.  '■'■  Laio  of  continuity  (Math,  and  Plujsics), 
the  principle  that  nothing  passes  from  one  state  to 
another  without  passing  through  all  the  intermediate 
states."  Or,  1  might  interpret  by  saying  that  prog- 
ress   in    school    (and   progress   here    implies    that    of 


OP  EX   LETTERS    TO   A    YOUNG    TEACH  Ell.      o5 

teaching  as  well  as  of  learnina:)  should  be  a  step-by- 
step  movement ;  that  there  should  be  no  break  in  the 
procedure  which  might  cause  disturbance.  But  tiiat 
would  not  be  sufficient.  There  is  still  a  vagueness 
about  these  deliuitions. 

Let  me  say,  then  :  By  continuity  of  instruction  I 
moan,  that  the  matter  of  instruction  should  be  given 
in  genetic  order.  I  mean  that  immovable  and  per- 
petual order  established  since  the  creation  of  the 
universe,  which  in  philosoi)hy  is  called  the  law  of 
continuity,  in  virtue  of  which  every  thing  that  is  done 
is  done  by  degrees  infinitely  small.  It  seems  to  be 
the  dictate  of  good  sense,  that  no  cliange  is  made  by 
means  of  leaps.  Natara  non  operatar  per  S(iU>on 
(nature  does  not  operate  in  leaps)  ;  and  nothing  in 
nature's  own  unhurried  manner  of  growth  can  pass 
from  one  extreme  to  another,  without  passing  through 
all  the  intermediate  degrees. 

Now,  what  is  true  of  nature's  growth  must  hold 
good  of  the  mind  ;  man  existing  not  outside  of,  but 
within  nature,  being  part  of  nature.  So,  then,  all 
the  items  of  each  branch  of  study  should  be  so  pre- 
sented that  they  f(jrm  a  genetic  order.  Furthermoi'c, 
all  the  dirterent  branches  of  study  .should  have  an 
organic  connection  with  eacli  other.  And  here  come 
in  the  art  and  skill  of  the  teacher,  which  no  organi- 
zation, be  it  over  so  wise,  no  text-l)0()k,  be  it  ever  so 
excellent,  can  replace.  There  must  be  a  continuous 
adaptation,  in  fact,  which  mere  text-book  slaves  can- 
not practice,  even  though  they  understand  it. 


56        EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF   T/Il'J   DAV. 

Thus,  for  iiist;iiicc,  it  would  seem  wise  to  choose 
the  exiunplos  used  iu  p,r:iinui:ir  fi-oni  the  material 
gained  in  other  studies,  as  geography,  history,  aritli- 
inctic,  as  well  as  literature.  In  other  w^ords,  we 
should  feed  our  instruction  iu  language  from  the 
material  the  child  has  at  hand.  In  spelling,  we  should 
use  new  words  which  the  child  meets  in  all  branches 
of  study,  and  not  only  from  a  spelling-book,  the  con- 
tents of  which  are  in  no  organic  connection  with  the 
child's  thought-material.  In  arithmetic,  we  should  use 
problems  taken  from  the  child's  home-experience,  or 
such  as  afford  an  organic  connection  with  the  child's 
range  of  thought.  In  short,  genetic  order  in  each 
study,  and  organic  connection  between  the  different 
studies,  will  cause  contiuuity  of  thought,  which  is  a 
condition  of  mental  growth,  and  therefore  a  condition 
of  success  in  teaching. 

There  certainl}-  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  desira- 
bility of  connecting,  logically  and  organicall}',  all  the 
matter  of  instruction,  so  that  erratic  leaping  between 
distant  points  be  avoided.  But,  my  friend,  that  is 
but  half  the  principle.  So  far,  m}-  explanations  had 
reference  to  continuity  in  the  matter  of  instruction 
onl}'.  The  continuity  of  the  child's  mind  is  of  even 
greater  importance.  If  the  child  is  not  prepared  to 
take  the  next  step  in  an  otherwise  genetic  train  of 
thought,  you  will  not  be  able  to  lift  him  up  to  it,  since 
he  must  grow  up  to  it.  If  he  is  not  prepared  to  com- 
prehend the  next  thought,  you  cannot  ingraft  it  upon 
his  mind,  since  the  mind  must  develop  thought  within. 


OPEN   LKTTEHS    to   a    young    TKACHEli.      ;')7 

A  thought,  1)0  it  iiuligonous  or  not,  cannot  spring 
into  life,  or  enter  the  child's  mind,  as  a  complete, 
finished  thing.  It  necessitates  the  acti<;n  of  thinking 
not  only  of  this  one  thought,  but  of  several  others 
which  lead  lip  to  it.  If  I  make  any  one  a  present  of 
a  dollar,  which  I  may  have  earned  hy  hard  toil  and 
hd)or.  it  rccjuircs  no  toil  and  lal)or  on  his  part  to  take 
it,  and  enjoy  its  use.  But  I  cannot  give  him  a  thought, 
without  making  him  earn  it ;  that  is,  not  without  re- 
quiring him  to  go  through  the  effort  of  thinking  like 
myself,  which  will  be  impossible  if  the  conditions  are 
not  the  same  in  both  minds. 

The  "  natural  "  method  of  teaching  derives  its 
nnuie  fiom  the  fact  that  it  is  in  harmony  with  the 
laws  of  natural  growth,  expansion,  development. 
Conlinuitv  of  instruction  refers  to  the  progressing 
activity  of  the  learner.  lie  is  to  be  led  in  such  a 
manner,  that  he  will  not  be  obliged  to  make  unnatural 
leaps,  but  will  make  steps  according  to  the  size  of 
his  own  legs  ;  that  is,  his  progress  will  lie  measured 
accurately  by  the  capacit}'  of  his  comprehension.  A 
train  of  thought  which  may  seem  unbroken  to  an  adult 
is,  perhaps,  not  so  to  a  child.  How  often  have  I 
heard  teachers  say,  "  Can't  you  see  that  yet? 
Haven't  I  made  that  clear  enough  yet?" 

You  may  easily  see,  that,  buying  an  article  for  ten 
cents,  and  intending  to  niMke  a  gain  of  twi-nty  per 
cent,  3'ou  woidd  have  to  sell  it  for  twelve  cents.  Hut 
a  child  will,  necessarily,  walk  slowly  before  he  coim-s 
to  the  same  conclusion.      There  are  many   links   be- 


58         EDUCATION M.    TOPIC'S   OF  Tiff':    fJAV. 

twiHMi  tlic  first  clcMiiciitary  icleii  of  iKM'centage,  and  the 
child's  ul)ility  to  sec,  as  readily  as  the  inerciiaut  does, 
what  price  must  be  put  on  the  article  to  make  a  gain 
of  twenty  per  cent.  It  cannot  be  urged  to(j  strongly, 
that  the  principle  of  continuity  has  to  be  applied  both 
to  the  matter  of  instruction,  and  to  the  mind  of  the 
learner.  Tlie  different  degrees  of  coini»rehension 
among  the  i)U[)ils  necessitate  a  constant  adaptation 
of  the  matter  to  the  mind,  and  in  this  the  teacher's 
skill  is  tested. 

1  know,  my  young  friend,  that  this  is  any  thing 
but  an  anuising  letter ;  but  the  subject  it  treats  of 
does  not  admit  of  humor.  A  few  words  on  "text- 
books" may  close  this  letter. — Genetic  and  logical 
order  is  preserved,  nay,  highly  cultivated,  in  our 
modern  text-books  ;  but  while  each  offers  that  order 
and  development  within  its  own  range,  it  rejects,  as 
it  were,  a  connection  with  other  branches  of  study. 
I  have  in  mind  the  many  books  on  grammar,  that 
present  the  subject  cut  loose  from  all  other,  even 
kindred,  subjects,  such  as  composition  and  literature. 
The  same  holds  good  in  text-books  of  geograph}', 
history,  arithmetic,  etc. 

Each  book  illustrates  the  continuity  in  the  matter 
of  instruction,  which,  of  course,  is  one  of  its  chief 
merits,  a  conditio  sine  qua  non.  But  the  books,  of 
necessity,  leave  out  of  consideration  the  continuity' 
of  the  child's  mind^  and  therefore  must  be  handled 
by  a  teacher  who  understands  the  child  as  well  as  his 
subject.      The  text-book  must  be  again  degraded   to 


OPEN  LETTER H    TO   A    YOUNG    TEACH EU.      59 

its  proper  position,  to  that  of  a  means  of  instruction. 
It  cannot,  and  should  not,  rephice  the  teacher,  who 
alone  can  make  the  proper  selection^  with  reference 
to  the  actual  state  of  mind  of  his  pupils.  lie  alone 
can  know  what  questions  to  ask,  what  matter  to 
present,  and  in  what  manner  to  present  it. 

The  value  of  text-l)()oks  has  Ix'cn  over-rated.  It 
may  be  uui)leasant  to  hear  it,  but  it  must  l»e  said. 
In  the  same  proportion  in  which  the  text-hooks  ijrew 
better,  the  teachers  grew  worse.  I  think  I  can  see  a 
complete  chain  of  cause  and  effect  in  this.  Others 
say :  In  the  same  proportion  in  which  liood  but 
poorly  paid  teachers  stepped  out  of  the  profession, 
and  were  replaced  by  poorly  prepared  teachers,  —  in 
the  same  proportion  the  text-books,  of  necessity, 
gVQw  better.  I  accept  this  as  a  more  charitable  ex- 
planation ;  l)ut  wish  to  emphasize  a^ain,  that  the  best 
text-book  cannot  replace  the  good  teacher,  because  it 
disregards  the  continuity  of  the  mind  by  presuppos- 
ing all  minds  alike.  It  cannot  perform  the  functions 
of  the  good  teacher,  who,  by  continuous  adaptation, 
fits  the  matter  of  instruction  to  the  capacity  of  the 
learner's  comprehension. 

TENTH   LETTER. 

■WIIV    TAKK    THK    TUonU.K? 

My  despondent  Yorxr,  Fkiend,  —  Your  letter  is 
not  as  cheerful  as  your  letters  usuallv  are.  You  say, 
you   have    been  disappointed    by  not    being  promoted 


60         EDUCATIOyAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

as  yon  had  {'xpected,  and  tliat  3'ou  asked  yonrsclf  wliy 
you  should  take  the  trouble  of  studying  constantly  and 
trying  to  improve  j'oursclf,  when  that  improvement  has 
no  market  value?  It  is  a  serious  case  indeed,  and 
should  be  treated  with  sympathy  and  encouragement. 
Knowing  that  you  can  approach  any  question  calmly 
and  impartially,  I  will  ask  you  to  look  at  this  one  from 
a  higher  point  of  view  than  your  own  personal  griev- 
ance will  permit.  Let  me  quote  a  i)assage  from  a 
recent  writer :  — 

••'  It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  that  upon  all  domains  of 
practical  life,  as  well  as  in  science,  division  of  labor 
has  become  a  necessity.  And  no  one  will  deu}-  that 
to  this  division  of  efforts  may  be  traced  back  many 
grand  performances  of  our  times.  But  we  are  also 
aware,  that  the  mechanic  often  sinks  to  the  level  of  the 
machine,  and  becomes  a  mere  mechanical  w'orker,  in 
consequence  of  this  division  of  labor.  And  so  there 
is  imminent  danger,  that  in  the  realm  of  thought  and 
mental  labor  those  who  are  chiefly  occupied  with  sub- 
ordinate specialties  will  lose  their  comprehension  of 
the  whole,  —  will  not  see  the  great  aim  of  that  of  which 
their  specialty  is  a  mere  trifling  part." 

The  whole  embraces  the  particular,  and  the  latter 
derives  its  value  fiom  the  former.  The  judgment  of 
the  specialist  is  easily  prejudiced,  and  becomes  warjicd. 
His  line  of  argument  is  defective,  not  uufivcpientlv 
totally  faulty  ;  and  the  boundaries  of  his  horizon  are 
often  congruent  with  the  narrow  boundaries  of  his 
native  city  or  village. 


OPEN   LETTEIiS    TO   A    YOVNfi    TEACHER.      Gl 

Nothing  is  more  dangerous,  in  science,  than  spinnhig 
one's  self  into  a  cocoon  of  small  and  smaller  circles  of 
thought,  and  the  miserable  cry,  '•  I)u  not  disturl)  my 
circles!"  when  one  ajjproaches  these  narrow  minds 
with  demands  of  a  loftier  nature.  Science  can  he  kept 
young,  can  be  constantly  rejuvenated,  if  its  disciples 
will,  by  way  of  inductive  reasoning,  rise  from  llic  par- 
ticular to  the  general,  and  go  back,  by  way  of  deduc- 
tion, from  the  general  to  the  particular. 

If  any  one  should  be  conscious  of  this,  it  is  the 
teacher.  If  he  satisfies  himself  with  doing  his  duty 
within  the  four  walls  of  his  schoolroom,  he  will  soon 
degrade  his  art  to  a  mere  handicraft.  No  science  de- 
serves to  l>e  called  "associating  science"  more  than 
our  professional  science  "  i)edagogy."  It  is  said,  that 
he  who  thinks  about  education  thinks  aliout  every 
thing.  And  if  we  consider  this  in  the  true  sense  in 
which  it  is  meant,  there  can  be  no  presumption  in  it. 

If  3'ou.  m}'  young  friend,  are  placed  in  charge  of  the 
a-b-c-darians,  you  should  at  least  know  the  course  of 
study  of  the  whole  range  of  grades  following.  But  at 
whatever  stage  in  the  curriculum  of  a  school,  fate  may 
place  you,  you  shouUl  distinctly  understand  the  con- 
nection between  school  and  life,  and  the  relations  be- 
tween school  and  home.  Vou  should,  at  eveiy  step, 
know  the  true  end  and  aim  of  cducalion  ;  and  be  con- 
stantly, aware,  that,  wliatevi'r  .-ippaicnlly  trilling  thing 
you  are  teaching,  it  must,  like  ever}'  other  part  of 
school  education,  have  its  bearings  upon  the  future 
destiny  of  the  child.     I  say  this,  because  it  is  a  world- 


C2        EBVCATJOyAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

wide  fallacy  to  think  litllo  is  necessary  to  teach  the 
youug  budding  mind. 

I  remind  you  of  tlie  Jesuits,  whose  schools,  though 
built  on  totally  different  principles,  and  aiming  at  totally 
different  objects,  were  noted  for  more  than  one  hun- 
dred years  for  their  wonderful  results.  The  Jesuits 
placed  3'oung  teachers,  beginners  in  the  profession,  in 
middle  and  high  grades  of  school,  and  promoted  them 
downward  according  to  their  degree  of  proficiency  and 
excellence.  If  this  proves  any  thing,  it  proves  that 
these  shrewd,  though  in  more  than  one  regard  des- 
picable, men  knew  the  value  of  elementary  education. 
It  is  an  erroneous  opinion  that  needs  be  fought, 
namely,  that  ain/  teacher  is  good  enough  for  the  be- 
ginners. The  best  one  is  barely-  good  enough  for  the 
youngest  pu[)ils. 

Thai,  however,  I  trust,  you  know  full  well.  What  I 
mean  to  emphasize  is,  that  you  should  foster  an  impa- 
tience with  yourself,  so  that  3'ou  will  not  sink  into  that 
self-satisfaction  which  is  the  arch-foe  of  all  real  prog- 
ress. Practice  in  the  schoolroom  is  vevy  apt  to  make 
you  self-satisfied  ;  and  if  you  do  not  earnestly  strive 
forward  and  upward,  you  will,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
short  years,  have  a  lamentably  small  horizon  of  thought 
and  vision.  This  danger  is  less  innninent  where  you 
are  called  upon  to  teach  a  variety  of  subjects  ;  it  is 
greatest  if  you  are  to  be  a  specialist. 

Now,  you  do  not  and  can  not  foresee  where  fate  may 
place  you,  and  what  duties  may  fall  to  your  share  ; 
but  that  much  you  do  or  ought  to  know  :  that  if  in  a 


OPEN   LETTEIl>!    TO   A    YOUSG    TEACllEU.      03 

few  years  your  teachers  and  colleafjues  ask,  "  What 
has  hecoine  of  her?"  the  answer  comes,  '■'■  Lost  to  the 
cause,  crushed  by  the  machine,  swept  away  into  a  for- 
gotten corner,  heard  of  no  more."  —  I  say,  you  know, 
that,  if  this  be  said  of  you,  it  is  your  own  fault.  Tlie 
vicissitudes  of  life  may  knock  you  al)out,  fate  may  deal 
hard  with  you  ;  but  I  iuii)lore  you  to  keep  fresh  witliin 
your  heart  and  mind  the  source  of  rejuvenation,  so  that 
30U  be  not  dead  to  the  profession,  —  so  that  no  monu- 
ment in  the  heait  of  your  teachers  be  erected,  bearing 
the  inscription,  ''  Sacred  to  the  memory  of  one  who  lost 
all  that  was  valuable  in  her, — to  wit,  herself." 

Perhaps  the  hardest  struggles,  the  fiercest  battles 
which  3'ou  will  have  to  go  through,  will  have  to  be 
fought  with  yourself.  What  the  poet  says  is  true, 
"  Vor  die  Tugcud  hahen  die  Gotter  den  Schweiss  r/e- 
setzf."  (Before  virtue,  the  gods  have  i)laced  persi)i- 
ratiou.) 

You  may  have  been  overlooked  unintentionally  by 
j'our  authorities,  or  you  may  have  been  retained  in  your 
present  position  because  you  are  best  fitted  for  the 
pupils  now  under  your  charge.  However  this  may  be, 
do  not  show  resentment,  not  even  disap[)ointinent ;  and 
you  will  disarm  any  evil  will  on  the  |>art  of  those  in 
authority  over  you,  and  arouse  a  symi)athy  which  will 
bear  high  interest  at  a  future  occasion.  But  liest  of  all. 
keep  up  your  studies,  never  waver  in  your  devotion  to 
duty,  and  in  your  hope  for  better  things  to  come,  and 
higher,  nobler  aims  to  attain. 

Let  me  express  the  hope,  that  when  your  life's  course 


64        KDIJCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DAY. 

runs  out,  it  nia\'  be  said  of  yon.  that  whicli  the  poet 
expresses  of  a  great  man  :  "^The  warm  impulse  he  gave 
shall  resist  the  empire  of  decay.  He  will  live  among 
us,  and  live  when  time  is  over  and  worlds  have  passed 
away.  Cold  in  the  dust  the  perished  heart  may  lie,  hut 
that  zvhich  ivarmed  it  once  shall  never  die." 


CHAPTER   11. 

FEOM  THE  EXPERIENCE   OF  A  SUPERVISOR. 


^r  >■ 


CIIAPrER    II. 

FROM   THE   EXPERIENCE   OF  A  SUPERVISOR. 
A    PERTINENT   QUESTION  ANSWERED. 
TuK  following  correspondiMice  will  c'x[)laiii  itself:  — 

I.    INQUIRY. 

Canton,  C,  Pcc.  11,  1886. 

Dkar  Sir,  —  It  is  a  g(Micral  complaint,  that  very 
few  young  men  graduate  from  our  pul)lie  high  schools, 
—  very  few  in  comparison  with  the  number  of  young 
ladies  who  graduate.  It  is  believcil  that  the  proportion 
IS  not  above  cue  to  four  throughout  the  State  of  Ohio. 
Demand  for  explanation  is  usually  met  by  a  statement 
that  the  worldly  circumstances  of  parents  require  the 
personal  services  and  earnings  of  tiieir  boys  at  an  early 
age.  But  the  fact  is,  that  very  few  of  the  .sons  of  i)io- 
fessional  men,  merchants,  and  others  in  favorable  and 
easy  circiunstanccs,  remain  to  gra(Uuite  ;  while  the  sons 
of  poor  men  frecjuentl}'  do  graduate.  Inquny  among 
parents  whose  boys  have  left  school  before  grachiation 
leads  to  the  belief,  that  in  most  cases  the  discontmu- 
ance  has  been  against  the  wishes  of  the  parents,  and 
notwithstanding  their  earnest  desire  that  their  sons 
should    ii'mnui   nnd   finish    tiie  course  of    study.      The 

(17 


OS        EDUCATIONAL    TOl'ICS   OF  Till-:   DAY. 

w(jrl(lly  circumstances  of  the  parents  cannot  l)e  relied 
on  as  tlie  true  reason  for  tliis  condition  of  affairs. 

Another  reason  has  Ijeen  given.  It  is,  tliat  boys 
from  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age  have  taken  an  aver- 
sion to  school  and  school-work  from  the  sting  of 
ignominy  uillieted  on  them  by  cruel  corporal  punish- 
ments administered  by  their  teachers.  It  is  believed 
by  some,  who  have  given  the  subject  thought,  that 
great  harm  is  being  done  to  our  educational  system 
by  the  excessive  corporal  puuislnnents  on  boys  in 
school ;  that  the  custom  is  an  evil  one,  and  has  an 
inherent  tendency  to  abuse  ;  that  by  its  practice  the 
teachei's  become  cruel  and  heartless,  and  the  l)oys 
sullen  and  revengeful ;  that  it  breaks  down  their  self- 
resi)ect,  stultifies  their  budding  manhood,  and  makes 
the  school  where  it  is  inflicted  distasteful,  if  not  hate- 
ful, to  then,  and  the}'  seek  ever}-  excuse  to  be  free 
from  its  disgraceful  thraldom. 

Has  this  thougl)t  ever  occurred  to  you  in  connection 
with  your  school- work?  You  are  aw£)re  that,  as  men, 
we  consider  a  blow  a  deep  indignity.  One  of  the 
marked  distinctions,  for  centuries,  between  freemen 
and  slaves,  has  been  that  a  freeman  may  not  l>e  beaten 
as  a  punishment.  The  more  refined  and  advanced  the 
state  of  civilization,  the  deeper  and  more  humiliating 
the  sense  of  indignity  felt  from  the  infliction  of  blows. 
May  not  our  boys  have  feelings  and  sentiments  akin  to 
our  own?  Nay.  may  it  not  be  that  many  parents, 
sympalhiziug  with  tlie  developing  manhood  of  then" 
boys,  withdraw  them  from  schouls  wLeie  cruel  corporal 


THE   EXPKRIKyCK   OF  A    SUl'Kin'ISOIt.       HO 

punishments  are  tolerated  ?  A  desire  for  education 
may  be  ver}'  strong  in  the  human  mind,  but  it  is  not 
a  movinji;  instinct  like  the  desire  to  satisfy  hunger. 
"Willi  animals  will  set*k  places  where  food  is  abundant; 
but  they  will  shun,  if  they  starve,  places  where  they 
know  there  is  personal  danger,  though  food  may  there 
be  ever  so  al)nndant  and  desirable.  Are  our  boys 
driven  from  school  before  graduation  by  the  ignominy, 
or  the  dread  of  the  ignominy,  of  [Xirsonal  vi(jlence 
at  the  han<ls  of  their  teachers? 

May  I  hope  that  this  subject  will  receive  j^our  care- 
ful consideration,  and  that  I  may  have,  at  the  earliest 
practical  n)oment,  your  views  as  fully  as  possible? 
Awaiting  which,  I  am 

Ver\  respectfully  yours, 

JAMES    J.    CLARK, 

Member  of  Cunton.  School  Board. 

II.    KKPLY. 

Hamilton,  O.,  Dec.  1'),  ISSfi. 

Dkar  Sin,  —  In  answer  to  your  courteous  letter 
of  inquirv,  I  wish  to  state  that  the  fact,  the  causes 
of  which  you  desire  to  investigate,  is  admitted. 
Though  we  fmd  that  the  number  <;f  graduates  among 
the  boys  as  com|>ared  with  that  of  the  giils  in  our  city 
is  more  than  one-third,  this  does  not  materially  alter 
the  aspect  of  the  case.  I  agree  with  you.  tli;it  the 
argument  conceiiiing  the  worldly  circumstances  of 
parents  is  not  satisfactory,  inasmuch  :is  it  is  not  up- 


70         KDJrcATIONAL    TOrif'S   OF   Tlfl-:    DAV. 

lu'ld  by  f:u-ts  in  such  luiinhcr  us  to  make  llicin  of 
sullicient  weight.  Again,  I  agree  that  the  abridgment 
of  the  conrscs  by  vohintary  ""  quituation  "  is  hardly 
ever  in  accord  with  the  parents'  desire.  Certain!}', 
there  must  be  other  reasons  for  the  nndue  proportion 
of  female  graduates  over  male  graduates. 

You  attiibute  the  above  fact  to  the  toleration,  or, 
?et  me  say,  to  the  application,  of  cruel  corporal  punish- 
ment at  the  hands  of  the  teachers  upon  the  boys  fiom 
ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  You  reason  well ;  and  I 
agree  that  this  explains,  if  not  many,  certainly  some, 
cases  of  early  withdrawal  from  school ;  but  permit  me 
to  say,  in  all  candor,  that  you  are  playing  on  a  harp 
with  but  one  string.  In  the  first  place,  corporal  pun- 
ishment is  not  prevalent  enough,  so  far  as  ray  extended 
experience  goes,  to  be  so  potent  a  factor  in  the  ease 
under  discussion.  ]\Iorcover,  boys  who  manage  to  get 
cruelly  Ijcaten  (I  am  speaking  advisedly,  and,  as  I 
believe,  with  the  proper  choice  of  terms)  are  of  a  type 
who  generally  never  enter  a  high  school,  and  certainly 
never  graduate.  But,  sir,  your  argument  as  to  the 
degrading  influence  of  corporal  punishment,  both  upon 
pupils  and  teachers,  is  heartily  commended. 

Personally,  and  in  my  official  capacity,  I  regard  only 
two  offences  properly  punishable  by  corporal  punish- 
ment. According  to  the  just  rule,  that  punishment 
should  be  in  strict  accordance  with  the  offence,  I  be- 
lieve corporal  punishment  in  place,  (1)  where  a  flagrant 
case  of  cruelty,  either  to  animals  or  human  beings, 
is  to  be  dealt  with,  because  bodily  pain  is  the  proper 


THE   EXI'EIUENCK   OF  A    SlJI'EIiVlSOli.       71 

rometly  in  that  case;  and  (2)  in  the  case  of  open  and 
violent  resistance  to  autiiority,  for  we  must  not  forjret 
that  the  school  is  not  a  rei)ul»lic,  and  that  the  teacher 
is  to  lie  (jiu'cn  of  the  hive  or  goveiMior  <^f  the  class. 
For  every  other  offence,  be  it  against  truth,  order, 
honesty,  decency,  or  whatever  else,  corpoial  punish- 
ment is  in)pro[ier.  Moreover,  since  it  acts  like  opium, 
if  indulged  in  a  few  times,  causing  a  craving  for  more, 
teachers  become  accustomed  to  it,  and  make  its  appli- 
cation a  habit. 

Whether  my  limitations  of  corporal  punishment,  as 
stated,  find  approval  or  not,  this  will  certainly  be 
granted  b}'  every  right-thinking  person  :  namely,  that, 
the  less  of  corporal  punishment  that  is  inflicted,  the 
higher  will  be  the  type  of  the  school,  moralh'  and 
intellectually  ;  also,  that  in  some  cases,  as  you  most 
convincingl}' state  it,  boys  are  drivi-n  from  school  l)efore 
graduation  by  the  ignominy  of  personal  violence  at  the 
hands  of  the  teacher,  and  even  by  the  dread  of  such 
ignominy. 

Permit  me  to  recapitulate.  First,  I  grant,  that,  in 
a  few  cases,  the  worldl}'  circumstances  cause  an  early 
withdrawal  of  the  boys  from  school  ;  second,  that,  in 
a  greater  number  of  cases,  the  apjilication  of  corporal 
punishment  has  the  same  effect.  But  tliat  d-(jes  not 
ad('(jHately  explain  the  (jroat  f(dlin(i-nfl'  in  the  number 
of  boys  who  tiy  to  acquire  a  higher  education.  The 
following  causes  will,  in  my  judgment,  explain  the 
fact  under  discussion,  l)etter  than  the  two  contained 
in  your  letter  of  inquiry. 


72         KDVCAriONAL    TOI'K-'S   OF   THE    DAY. 

I.  I  ix'iniiid  you,  dear  sir,  of  tlic  fact  tliat.  in  tliis 
country  manifold  opportunities  are  offered  to  boys  at 
an  early  age,  to  earn,  if  not  a  livelihood,  certainly 
a  considerable  amount  of  pocket-money.  This  is  a 
temptation  which  is  not  held  out  in  many  European 
countries, — a  temptation  to  which  many  a  tolerably 
good  bo}'  in  this  country  succumbs. 

II.  I  remind  you  of  this  other  fact,  —  that  the  too 
prevalent  worship  of  the  self-made  man,  in  this  coun- 
try, dei)lorable  though  it  be,  tempts  the  boy  to  despise, 
as  his  father  possibly  may,  systematic  higher  educa- 
tion, and  to  try  to  carve  out  his  own  future  without 
it.  In  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred,  srch  a  boy 
fails  and  speedily  sinks  to  the  bottom  ;  never  reaches 
the  fame  of  the  great  self-made  man  who  was  his 
ideal,  and  is  tinall}'  found  on  a  level  with  men  of 
whom  thirteen  do  not  even  make  a  dozen.  But  the 
fact  remains,  that  it  is  a  great  temptation.  College- 
bred  men  are  too  often  quoted  below  par,  in  this 
country.  The  river  cannot  rise  higher  than  its  source. 
Why  should  the  boy  think  higher  education  necessary, 
or  even  desirable,  when  at  the  fireside,  in  the  press, 
from  the  pulpit  or  the  lecture-rostrum,  on  the  stump, 
at  the  bar,  —  in  fact,  everywhere,  —  the  fame  of  the 
self-made  man  is  proclaimed? 

III.  Permit  me  to  call  your  attention  to  a  third 
fact,  not  alwaj-s  known,  and  where  known  not  infre- 
quently denied,  for  reasons  too  obvious  to  mention. 
It  is  this:  that  the  course  of  study,  the  methods  of 
teaching,   and    the   mode   of   training,   in    the   higher 


THE  EXPEIUESCE   OF  A    SVPEUVlsoi:.       78 

grades  of  the  grammar  school,  as  well  as  in  the  high 
schools,  are  designed  for.  and  shaped  according  to, 
the  needs  and  wants  of  the  girls,  and  not  the  boys. 
AVliile  I  grant,  readily  and  cheerfully,  that  the  girls 
have  the  right  to  the  same  amount  of  education  that 
the  boys  claim,  and  which  it  is  our  soKinn  duty  to 
grant  to  them,  I  claim,  most  eni[)hatically  that  the 
two  sexes  from  twelve  years  of  age  and  upward  need 
a  different  training.  I  cannot  go  into  details,  but  1 
should  covet  an  oi)i)ortunity  to  do  so.  Sullice  it  to 
say,  that  we  measure  tlic  steps  in  our  instruction,  and 
the  methods  of  our  i)rocedurc,  b}'  the  peculiar  combina- 
tion of  faculties  in  the  girls,  just  as  a  father  measures 
his  steps  l)y  those  of  his  child  whom  he  takes  out 
walking.  There  is  a  strong  desire  in  the  average  boy 
for  exertion  and  application  of  his  powers,  which  is 
not  comi)lied  with,  at  this  age,  in  the  schools  as  they 
now  are.  lie  is  repressed,  and  made  to  progress  as 
the  girls  do.  He  sits  side  by  side  with  them  ;  they 
are  held  n[)  to  him  as  examples,  whose  frailty  he,  in 
his  physical  rol)n.st  nature,  despises.  INIoreovcr,  in 
many  cases  he  has  i.ot  even  a  male  example  in  his 
teacher.  If  he  is  a  weak  character,  he  becomes 
effeminate.  If  he  is  a  strong  char.-u-ter.  he  is  soon 
filled  with  disgust,  and  (juits  school  to  lind  a  better 
op|)ortunity  for  the  exertion  of  those  powers  which 
Ihid  no  satisf:ic(iou  in  a  girls'  scliool.  I  know,  dear 
sir,  this  will  be  considered  rank  heresy  among  many 
educational  leaders  in  this  country  ;  but  it  is  my  i-on- 
viclion,  and   I   have  the  courage  of  mv  conviction   to 


74         EDUCATIONAL    TOI'HS   OF   TIIK   DAY. 

uttor  it.  Do  not  1)p  doccivcd  liy  the  tliiiisy  ari^nment 
that  llic  girls  are  making  nion;  rapid  piogicss  than  the 
Iio^s.  Tliey  are  merely  i)a.s.sive  recipients  of  knowl- 
edge ;  while  a  lK)y  can  argue  himself  into  knowledge, 
when  he  has  a  male  teacher  who  is  ready  to  indulge 
him  in  that.  The  very  presence  of  girls,  however, 
del)ars  him  from  such  a  course  in  a  girls'  school,  for 
that  is  what  most  of  our  high  .schools  ai'e.  Where 
boys  and  girls  are  separated  in  different  buildings, 
usually  a  greater  number  of  boys  graduate  annuall}'. 
This  confirms  the  position  just  taken. 

IV.  As  I  stated  above,  the  undue  proportion  of 
female  teachers  over  male  teachers  is  to  be  counted 
in  when  we  look  for  the  eaih'  withdrawal  from  school 
on  the  part  of  the  boys.  Boys  at  the  critical  age  of 
fourteen  to  eighteen  must  have  examples  of  manliness, 
of  man's  thoughts,  of  man's  waj'  of  acting,  of  man's 
motives,  of  man's  will-power  and  general  conduct; 
and,  instinctively  feeling  this,  they  seek  it  outside  of 
school.  But  I  have  sufliciently  emphasized  this  under 
the  last  head,  and  will  not  dwell  u[)on  it  further. 

Pardou  the  length  of  this  repl}' ;  but  of  what  the 
heart  is  full,  the  mouth  floweth  over. 

Yours  very  respectfully, 

L.  K.  KLE:\nr, 

Supt.  of  Public  Schools. 


rilK   EXPERIENCE   OF  A    SUl'EfiriSOi;.        ..) 
THE  MEDICAL   PRACTICE   OF  A    TEACHER. 

I.    A    WEAK    SPELLEU. 

A  SUPEHINTEXDENT,  or,  for  that  matter,  every 
teacher,  is  more  or  less  a  physieian  of  diseased 
minds,  and  on<>;ht  to  be  able  to  give  an  account  of 
cures  he  has  effected,  or  a  diagnosis  of  cases  he  has 
treated.  In  the  following  scries  of  short  articles,  I 
will  endeavor  to  desciibe  a  few  cases  which  came 
under  my  observation,  and  which,  as  I  cannot  but  say 
with  pride,  arc  in  a  fau'  way  to  recover  even  if  not 
entirely  cured. 

Miss  A. — "There  is  a  boy  among  m\"  pupils  who 
is  an  excellent  arithmetician,  gets  up  good  lessons  in 
geography  and  history,  is  alive  to  the  niceties  of 
expression,  that  is,  is  careful  in  the  selection  of  his 
woids.  and  construes  his  sentences  well ;  but  is  an 
inditferent  reader,  and  a  most  wretched,  al)omuiable 
speller.  What  do  you  think,  Mr.  K..  ought  to  be 
done  in  this  case?  " 

What  remedies  have  you  tried? 

Miss  A.  —  ••  1  have  pinned  him  down  to  his  spell- 
ing-book till  his  eyes  l)egan  to  wander.  I  have 
ai)pealed  to  his  sense  of  duty,  which  is  very  keen  ; 
but  I  saw  that  made  matters  worse,  because  it  over- 
taxed his  limited  ability.  Then  I  appealed  to  his 
ambition  ;  which  proved  to  l)e  perfect  poison,  for  now 
the  boy  would  try  to  master  long  strings  of  words,  and 


76        EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

tlioroby  weaken  his  niomoiy  more  than  ever.  Can 
you  suggest  any  thing  Ijcttcr?" 

I  suspect,  my  dear  Miss  A.,  that  you  have  not 
inquired  into  tiie  causes  of  this  disease ;  and  I  am 
sure,  iiad  you  done  so,  you  would  have  employed  a 
totally  different  mode  of  treatment.  Can  you  imagine 
the  cause  ? 

Miss  A.  —  "No,  I  haven't  the  most  remote  idea, 
unless  it  be  want  of  attention  or  api)lication  at  a 
former  stage  of  his  school  career." 

No,  I  think  we  shall  have  to  look  elsewhere  for  the 
cause.  Let  me  ask  you  to  show  him  a  rose-leaf  or 
a  clover-leaf,  and  then  tell  him  to  sketch  it.  Write  a 
smgle  word,  such  as  "•  breakfast,"  on  the  board;  let 
him  see  it,  and  then  observe  how  correctly  or  incor- 
rectly he  reproduces  it  from  memory.  Try  him  also 
in  describing  some  object  accurately.  Please  try 
these  things  first,  and  tell  me  to-morrow  the  result 
of  your  observations. 

{Next  day.)  Miss  A.  —  "  Why,  he  could  not  sketch 
the  leaf,  nor  reproduce  the  word  correctly,  nor,  in  fact, 
could  he  describe  a  simple  thing  witli  any  degree  of 
accuracy." 

And  what  do  you  infer  from  these  facts? 

Miss  A. — '•!  should  say,  his  sense  of  form  is 
wofully  neglected." 

V^ery  good,  my  dear  young  lady.  Tliat  is  the  whole 
argument  in  a  nutshell.  Now  go  further:  Having  no 
sense  of  form,  he  cannot  have  a  memory  for  forms, 
just  as  little  as  a  person  who  never  in  his  life  heard 


THE    KXI'EHIENCE   OF  A    SUPEliVlSOK.        (7 

fi  sound  can  liave  a  memory  for  sounds.  He  has  a 
nicMnory  for  numbers  and  their  rehitions,  for  hislorieal, 
geographical,  and  other  facts  ;  but  his  form-sense  is 
weak.  Every  word  has  its  physiognomy,  and  spelling 
should  therefore  be  learned  by  means  of  the  sense  of 
sight  chiefly. 

Now  for  the  remedy.  Feed  him  on  a  diet  of  one, 
or,  at  best,  a  few  words,  for  a  few  days  :  use  easy, 
common  words,  such  as  occur  in  his  own  vocabulary, 
and  let  him  see  them  on  the  board,  on  paper,  in  piint, 
in  writing,  etc.  Set  him  to  liniling  them  ten  limes  in 
his  reader,  and  to  copying  them  till  he  is  perfectly 
familiar  with  them.  Make  him  analyze,  that  is,  split 
the  words  orally,  write  them  from  dictation,  and  use 
them  in  seHtcnccs  of  his  own. 

Do  this  with  a  very  limited  number  of  worils  :  in 
short,  give  him  babies'  diet,  till  his  form-sense,  and 
memory  for  word-pictures,  are  sulRcicntly  strong  to 
digest  more.  At  the  l)eginiung,  it  may  be  painfully 
wearisome  to  you  and  to  the  boy,  but  the  success 
which  is  sine  to  follow  your  endeavors  will  strengthen 
you  both.  You  will  find,  also,  that  he  improves  in 
reading.  Constant  repetition,  of  course,  is  necessaiy 
for  some  time,  until  the  boy  has  acquired  the  habit  of 
"  making  personal  acquamtance  "  with  words. 

Somewhere  in  the  earlier  stages  of  his  school-life 
his  perception  of  word-forms  was  neglected,  and  left 
without  stimulus  ;  or,  perhaps,  it  was  overworked,  and 
thereby  weakened. 

Well,  the  boy,  according  to  latest  reports,  is  on   the 


78        EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC'S   OF   TIIK    DAY. 

way  to  recovery.  lie  draws  well  now,  and  his  conti- 
positions  are,  if  not  faultless,  certainly  fair  specimens 
of  orthography  for  a  i)npil  of  his  age. 

II.    THK    RESCUE    OF    A    DUNCE. 

The  following  sketch  may  show  that  the  teacher 
can  undo  much  mischief  caused  by  wrong  treatment 
or  want  of  natural  aptitude. 

Miss  C.  —  '•  AVell,  Hugo  is  a  dunce,  if  ever  there 
was  one  !  He  is  wretched  in  every  branch  of  study, 
sits  ther(*  like  a  log,  and  apparently  has  no  interest 
in  any  thing  going  on  in  school.  His  progress  is  of 
the  slowest  kind,  and  I  suspect  he  was  sent  to  my 
room  because  he  was  too  old  to  stay  in  Miss  W.'s 
room  any  longer.  I  wish  you  would  suggest  a  remedy 
in  this  case,  Mr.  K." 

What  are  his  home  surroundings? 

Miss  C.  —  "  They  are  not  elevating,  to  say  the  least. 
I  know  from  hearsay,  that  Hugo  is  pushed  and  knocked 
about,  scolded  constantly,  and  even  whipped  merci- 
lessly, by  parents  who  do  not  understand  the  boy's 
absolute  want  of  perception." 

Are  you  sure.  Miss  C,  that  the  boy's  apathy  is 
the  result  of  defective  perceptive  facult}-  ? 

Miss  C.  —  "I  am,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  school 
work.  I  can  amuse  him  royally  by  giving  pictures 
into  his  hands.  I  even  saw  him  smile  over  a  simple 
outline  sketch  of  a  humorous  scene.  Come  to  my 
room,  and   watch  him  a  while,   will  you?" 

1    did.    giving    instructions    to    the    teacher    not    to 


TIIK    1-}.\1'KI:IKS('E   OF   A    SU ['Fm'rsO!!.        79 

notico  liiin  or  mo.  I  seatod  myself  near  Hugo,  took 
II  slatt'  and  pencil,  ami  i)egaii  to  draw  outline  .sketclies 
of  things  which  might  amuse  him.  Soon  I  saw  him 
imitating  mc,  and  that  with  a  dexterity  and  artistic 
skill  which  fairly  took  my  breath  away.  I  smiled  at 
him  encouragingly,  entered  into  a  whispered  conversa- 
tion with  him  concerning  the  i)ictures  he  drew,  indueeil 
him  to  show  me  my  mistakes  in  drawing,  which  he 
did  readily  and  without  assumption.  Seeing  in  me  a 
"hail  fellow  well  met,"  he  warmed  and  opened  up  his 
soul  to  me  as  he  had  perhaps  never  done  in  his  life. 

There  was  a  rich  and  warm-hearted  life  under  a 
crust  of  apparent  apathy  ;  and  I  was  determined  to 
awaken  it,  and  reconcile  it  with  its  surroundings.  We 
two  adjourned  to  my  ofTice  ;  and  for  a  whole  hour  he 
conversed  freely  with  me,  showing  no  reserve,  after 
seeing  that  I  meant  well.  After  reporting  to  INfiss  C. 
the  substance  and  character  of  our  conversation,  she 
blanched,  and  cried  out  from  the  bottom  of  her 
troubled  heart,  "Have  I  misjudged  the  boy?  Lord  for- 
give me  if   I  have!  "      (Rless  her  impulsive  lu-artl) 

Miss  C.  and  myself  agreed  upon  a  plan  for  action 
with  regard  to  the  dunce,  as  Hugo  had  been  called  by 
everybody.  For  a  number  of  weeks,  we  gave  him  the 
privilege  of  coming  to  the  oflice  whenever  he  felt  like 
doing  so.  We  gave  him  work  to  do,  ^-es,  but  made 
all  his  work  have  relation  to  drawing.  All  his  arith- 
metic was  drawing  ami  sketcliiiig.  till  slowly,  but  by 
perceptible  degrees,  his  interi'st  in  other  things  was 
awakened. 


80         KDUCATIOXAL    TOPICS   OF   TIIK    1>AY. 

One  ei)isode  of  liis  cure  is  very  vividly  iini>iinled  in 
my  uiemoiv.  lingo  showed  a  decid(;d  disliiie  l.o  read- 
ing. I  argned  with  him,  saying  that  some  da}',  when 
he  would  he  a  great  artist,  he  would  wish  to  read  what 
people  saitl  about  him  ;  he  would  want  to  read  the 
criticisms  made  upon  his  work  in  the  journals.  Well, 
(jueer  as  it  may  seem,  and  questionable  as  the  incen- 
tive may  have  been  from  a  moral  point  of  view,  it  is 
a  fact,  that  from  that  day  the  boy  bent  all  his  energy 
u[)on  reading,  till  after  a  few  months  he  read  as 
fluently  as  most  of  his  schoolmates  who  were  con- 
sidered bright  boys  wlieu  he  was  ••  the  dunce." 

One  thing  I  greatly  disliked  in  him  ;  namelv,  the 
way  he  revenged  himself  frequently.  When  other 
bo\-s  would  use  their  fists  freely,  Hugo  would  rapidly 
draw  a  caricature  of  the  person  who  he  thought  had 
intended  to  wrong  him.  Some  of  these  caricatures  are 
still  in  my  possession,  and  I  cannot  but  laugh  when 
I  come  across  them.  There  was  such  a  fine  vein  of 
humor  exhibited  in  these  pictures,  that  1  became  easily 
reconciled  with  his  mode  of  revenge.  The  boys  soon 
feared  Hugo's  crayon  more  than  they  did  his  fists, 
and  they  ■'  left  him  severely  alone,"  or  at  least  treated 
him  gingeri}',  "  right  side  up  with  care." 

To  cut  a  long  story  short,  the  boy  is  now  a  very 
creditable  pupil,  though  by  no  means  a  shining  light 
in    scholarly   attainments ;    he   is    fairly   equipped    for 

higher  grades;    and   if  in    future  years   Hugo 

should  become  a  great  painter,  which  is  not  at  al) 
imi)Ossible,   some    of    his    schoolmates    may   be    proud 


TIIK    KXrERIEXCE   OF  A    SC PEliVISOIL       81 

of  luiviiiii;  goiii'  to  school  with  him.  Hugo  has  a  very 
soft  si)ot  in  his  heart  for  Miss  C.  ami  myself,  and  I 
am  ha[jpy  over  it. 

HI.   A   "bad"   1!oy   in   MUTinncTir. 

In  the  follo\vinj>;  article,  another  of  tlie  \vc:ikn(>sscs 
frequently  found  among  pupils  is  treated. 

Miss  I>.  —  '•  I  have  a  good  mind  to  shake  you,  Fred  ! 
Don't  you  see  that  you  made  one  error  after  another  in 
the  solution  of  this  prohlem  ?  You  ought  to  be  ashamed 
of  youi-sclf,  to  l»e  so  'bad'  in  arithmetic,  and  good 
in  every  thing  else." 

I  ha|)pened  to  hear  tliis  by  no  means  uncommon 
speech,  and  Ix'came  i)aiufiilly  aware  of  the  fact  that 
Fred,  whom  I  h:id  come  to  praise  for  his  excellent 
work  in  map-diawing,  needed  a  little  extra  attention. 
I  inquiivd  of  the  teacher  afterward  the  i)articulars  of 
the  case.     Here  is  her  statement :  — 

Miss  B.  —  '•  W»ll,  Mr.  K.,  I  love  that  boy  as  the 
ap|)le  of  my  eye.  You  need  not  be  astonished ;  I 
repeat.  I  love  liini.  But  1  fear  he  is  making  use  of 
my  preference  for  him.  There  is  no  reason  why  he 
should  be  so  slovenly  in  his  work  in  arithmetic.  He  is 
not  too  stupid  to  reason  out  a  problem.  —  no.  that  isn't 
it,  —  but  he  is  negligent  in  the  execution.  Don't  yon 
think  a  dose  of  '  heroic  treatment '  might  do  him  some 
good?  Oidy  don't  make  me  give  it  to  him.  for  I 
can't." 

Let  us  look  into  the  symptoms  before  we  prescrilte 
the  remedy.     What  makes  him  so  brilliant  in  history 


82         EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  TIIK   DAY. 

and  gpographv?  What,  do  you  think,  is  tlie  reason  of 
his  spirited  reading,  or  of  his  iDeritorious  efforts  in 
composition  ? 

Miss  B.  —  "Well,  I  suspect  he  has  more  talent  in 
those  directions," 

Likely ;  but  that  would  scarcely  account  for  his 
slovenliness  in  figuring,  for  you  say  yourself  he  is  not 
stupid  in  reasoning  out  a  problem.  And  then,  look  at 
his  work  in  map-drawing ;  see  with  what  loving  aecu- 
rac}-  he  has  treated  the  difficult  map  of  Europe.  There 
is  not  a  slovenly  line  on  that  whole  map.  Don't  you 
think  it  is  in  another  direction  where  we'll  have  to  look 
for  his  evident  carelessness  in  dealing  with  uumljers? 

Miss  B.  — "•  Indeed,  you  lead  me  to  suspect  that  it 
is  not  so  much  want  of  talent  as  want  of  interest." 

Very  good  ;  I  believe  you  are  right.  Interest,  a-ou 
know,  acts  upon  the  learner  as  sunshine  and  moisture 
do  upon  the  germs  in  the  ground.  Cannot  we  agree 
upon  a  remedy  which  will  arouse  that  interest?  Sup- 
pose that  you  try  this :  link  the  intense  interest  he 
manifests  in  geography  and  other  branches,  with  arith- 
metic, by  giving  him  problems  containing  geographical, 
historical,  or  statistical  dates,  or  any  thing  that  touches 
ihose  fields  of  knowledge  in  which  he  is  interested. 
Tell  him  that  much  depends  upon  accuracy  in  cipher- 
ing. I  should  be  much  astonished  if  he  would  not  be 
very  careful  in  the  execution  of  his  work.  At  least, 
let  us  try  his  preferences  as  levers. 

Miss  B.  —  "I  verily  believe  that  that  will  bring  him 
around  sooner  than  a  shakiuo-  will." 


THE   EXPEUIEyCE   OF  A    SUPERVISOR.       83 

And  wliil(;  we  are  alxnit  it.  iny  fiieiid.  don't  sav  a 
pupil  is  bail  ill  tliis  or  'eliat  study  :  say  he  is  weak. 
Ai)ply  the  word  '•  badness  "  to  cases  of  immorality.  A 
disobedient,  a  cruel,  or  an  uiitrutlit'ul  cliilil  iiiav  be 
called  a  bad  child  ;  but  a  poor  reader,  a  faulty  speller. 
or  an  inaccurate  arithmetician  may  be  a  vciv  trood 
child  in  i)oiut  of  morals. 

Miss  B.  took  111}'  words  good-naturedly.  The  boy 
in  question  is  now  one  of  the  most  accurate  and  fault- 
less arithmeticians  in  his  class,  a  proof  of  the  wonder- 
ful influence  interest  manifests,  be  that  interest  in  the 
teacher,  or  matter  of  instruction. 

IV.    A    BOY    "like    KASPAU    IIALSER." 

Miss  D.  —  "Oh.  'Sir.  K.,  I  have  a  l)oy  in  my  class 
who  is  a  veritable  Ka.spar  Ilauser'  when  it  comes  to 
composition  work.  He  hasn't  an  idea.  Please  to  look 
over  this  pa|)er." 

I  did.  This  was  the  production.  "A  sunrise.  The 
sun  rises  and  sets.  I  have  often  seen  him  set,  but 
only  once  rise.  I  guess  I  must  have  been  too  sleepy 
to  get  up  early  enough.  Since  it  is  too  long  ago  since 
I  saw  the  sun  rise,  I  cannot  say  any  thing  of  how  it 
looked,  or  whether  it  looks  any  ditTerent  from  the  set- 
ting ^5Ull."  Will,  the  .spelling  and  i)eninanship  arc  all 
right ;  that  is  one  redeeming  feature. 

'  \Vc  must  roqiiesl  the  roador  to  consult  a  hisitory  of  edncatioti,  to  learn 
the  |im'|Mii'i  of  tills  exiirt-Msion.  It  will  jiay  him  wi'll.  Or,  k-l  hiru  rc-ail 
fliitzkowV  roinaiK'O,  "  The  Souk  of  l'i>Uili>/./.i,"  in  which  Kanpar  HaUf-er 
plays  a  loading  part. 


84         EDUCATIONAL    TOI'KS   OF   THE    DAY. 

Miss  I).  —  "  Yes,  I  have  no  fault  to  liiid  llicrc  ;  Imt 
tliiiik  !  this  is  a  hoy  of  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  he  is 
not  ahle  to  say  any  thing  of  "  — 

Wliat  he  docs  not  know.  Pardon  nie  for  the  inter- 
ruption ;  l)ut,  I  shouhl  tliink,  you  set  him  too  hard  a 
task.  Suppose,  Miss  D.,  I  shoukl  ask  you  to  write  a 
composition  on  the  "Trckshuit^  as  a  means  of  trans- 
portation in  Holland,"  what  would  you  say? 

Miss  D.  —  "I  am  sure  I  should  say,  'I  can't  do 
it,'  never  having  seen  a  —  what  do  you  call  it?  — 
and  not  knowing  whether  it  is  a  cart,  a  boat,  or  a 
balloon." 

Why,  yes,  that  is  hitting  the  nail  on  the  head.  You 
expected  the  boy  to  say  something  of  the  tranquillity 
of  the  early  morning,  of  dawn,  of  the  first  faint  glim- 
mer of  light  on  the  eastern  horizon,  of  the  awakening 
skylark,  of  the  first  brilliant  rays  shooting  up  to  the 
zenith,  etc.,  ad  nauseam;  and  forgot  that  he  knew 
nothing  of  these  phenomena.  An  old  German  cook- 
book contains  a  curious  recipe  which  begins :  "In 
order  to  make  Ilascnpfeffer  (ragout  of  rabbit),  you 
must  first  catch  your  rabbit,  then,"  etc.  That's  it  pre- 
cisely !  The  most  necessary  ingredient  of  a  composi- 
tion is  a  thought  to  work  out.  Where  that  is  wanting, 
no  composition  can  be  made  ;  though  sauces  and  dips 
of  all  kinds  may  be  emi)loyed,  such  a  dish  will  remain 
without  substance.  A  child  who  has  something  to  say 
will  say  it.     A  child  of  experience  and  thoughts  will 

'  Drag-boat.  For  explanation  of  this,  see  Oliver  Optic's  Dikes  and 
Ditches,  p.  3o3. 


THE   EXPERlEXfE   OE  A    sr ]>EllVIS()l{.       ,So 

givo  lit  to  ranee  to  tlieiii.  tli()n<rli  his  lin<rtii.stic  talent  he 
limited.     So  please  fuiiiish  tlie  rabliit. 

Dr.  Kil.  Feldner,  a  nieinl)er  of  the  Saxon  parliament 
dmiiij4  the  (ierniaii  relielliun  of  1<'S4!S  (often  proudly 
termed  '-the  revolution  of  '48"),  and  afteiwaril 
princii)al  of  a  well-reputed  seminary  at  Detroit,  Mieh., 
once  told  me  the  following  instructive  incident  of 
his  life,  which  I  will  hcie  reproduce  for  the  benefit 
of  young  teachers  :  — 

"  I  was  a  boy  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  had  won 
an  en\  iable  rank  in  school ;  only  one  thing  faiily 
upset  me.  Once  a  month  a  subject  for  composition 
was  given  out,  such  as  -  Thoughts  of  an  Awakening 
Skylark,'  or  some  such  nonsensical  trash.  My 
report  showed  good  marks  in  every  thing,  even  in 
grammar;  but  in  composition  it  said  'very  poor.' 
My  excellent  father  must  have  felt  the  cause  of  my 
failing  in  this  jiarticnlar,  and  when  vacation  began 
he  gave  me  permission  t^j  make  an  excursion  which 
might  last  several  weeks.  He  furnished  me  with 
mone}',  mapi)ed  out  a  route  through  the  so-called 
Saxon  Switzerland,  and  gave  me  a  list  of  i)laees  at 
which  I   might  stop  over  night. 

''  I  was  hj;i)l>y  beyond  expression,  and  readily 
promised  to  writi  as  often  as  1  felt  like  it.  Oh,  the 
bliss  I  enjoyed  on  that  three-weeks'  trip  is  still  vividly 
imprinted  upon  the  tablet  of  jny  memory  !  I  wrote 
h(;me  aliiKjst  daily,  giving  an  accurate  account  of  wliat 
I  had  seen,  with  whom  I  had  fallen  in  on  the  way, 
what  they  had  said,  what  thoughts  had  been  awakened 


86         EDUCATIONAL    TOI'K'S   OF   TIIK    DAY. 

in  1113^  mind  ;it  the  sijilit  of  this  or  tliiit  phcnointMion 
oi'  scenery.  I  ilid  tliis  in  the  evening,  l)erore  going  to 
bed.  One  whole  letter  I  filled  with  a  vivid  description 
of  u  combat  I  had  with  a  vicious  dog  when  I  ascended 
to  a  hayloft  which  was  to  be  my  Ijcdchaniber  that 
night. 

"•  When  I  returned  home,  rny  father  told  me,  with  a 
touch  of  pride,  '  Edwaixl,  I  am  glad  you  have  im- 
proved in  composition-writing.'  —  '  Now  don't,'  said  1, 
'  you  know  I  hate  compositions.'  —  '  No,  no,  my  boy  ; 
I  mean  what  I  say :  every  one  of  your  letters  is  a 
capital  composition,  and  deserves  a  high  mark.  I 
sent  your  letters  to  Professor  W.,  and  convinced  him 
that  3'ou  are  an}'  thing  but  a  dunce  in  composition- 
writing.  He  acknowledged  to  me  that  he  had  mis- 
judged you.'  " 

If  this  story  has  any  moral,  it  is  :  First  catch  the 
rabbit. 

DISCIPLINE.  — A   REFORMATORY  CLASS. 

[From  Annual  Report  to  the  Board  of  Education  of  Hamilton,  0.\ 

As  a  general  thing,  the  discipline  in  the  schools  of 
smaller  towns  and  villages  is  vastly  better  than  in  the 
schools  of  large  cities.  I  was  very  pleasantly  sur- 
prised Avhen  I  came  here,  and  noticftl  the  well-nian- 
uered  children,  the  pleasant,  genial  smile  they  had 
for  tiieir  teachers,  and  the  politeness  they  showed  me 
wherever  they  met  me.  The  order  in  the  different 
schoolrooms  and  houses  varies  a  little,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  but  is  generally  good  without  being  oppres- 


THE   EXPEUIEXCE   OE  A    SUl'KI!  \1  soL'.       87 

sive.  If  we  inquire  into  the  frequency  of  corporal 
punishment,  and  ol)serve  niiniite'ly,  we  see  that  very 
few  cases  of  such  puiiishuK'nt  are  found  necessary. 
When  it  is  resorted  to,  it  is  ahnost  invariably  adminis- 
tered to  the  same  pn[)ils.  Teachers  should  undi-rstand 
that  a  request  cheerfully  uttered  is  always  hotter  than 
a  stern  command  ;  and  as  a  rule  you  will  find,  wherever 
and  whenever  you  enter  a  schoolroom,  that  a  cheerful 
teacher  has  a  cheerful  set  of  children  husily  at  work  or 
attentively  listening.     The  exceptions  to  this  are  but 

fl'W. 

I  al)hor  the  death-like  silence  that  is  considered  a 
result  of  good  discipline  in  many  scho<jls  all  over  the 
country.  Life  is  motion,  not  rest.  For  this  reason 
people  who  believe  that  iu  a  school  absolute  quietude 
should  reign,  —  a  quietude  iu  which  a  pin  might  be 
heard  falling,  —  such  people  may  find  many  a  school 
sadly  deficient  in  ''discipline."  People  of  c«immon- 
sense,  who  know  that  life  is  motion,  and  that  motion 
always  causes  some  noise,  will  be  well  satisfied  with 
wiiat  we  consider  good  discipline.  Col.  Parker,  of 
Quincy  fame,  once  heard  a  guest  whom  he  had  con- 
ducted through  his  schools,  remaik,  "  But  your 
classes  are  rather  noisy."  —  ^  Of  course,"  he  replied  : 
'•  our  schools  are  work-shops,  not  funerals.  Work 
always  implies  noise." 

But  while  we  have  reason  to  l)c  satisfied  with  the 
general  order  and  di-scipline,  and  while  we  rejoice  over 
the  conlidence  and  lldelity  exhibited  by  the  citizens  of 
Hamilton  toward  our  public  schools,  we  must  not  be 


88         EDUCATION M.    TOf'ICS   OF  TIIK    DAY. 

])liri(l  to  a  fact  wliicli  makes  itself  felt  more  ami  more 
disajfreeaUly,  a.s  liie  school  system  grows.  By  far  the 
greater  majority  of  eliildren  come  from  homes  in  which 
the  authority  of  the  teacher  is  acknowledged  and 
upheld.  Only  in  rare  cases  I  find  a  clashing  of  au- 
thority, as  it  were  ;  not  between  teacher  and  parents, 
for  in  these  cases  the  parents  have  lost  all  authorit}^ 
but  between  the  boys  and  the  rules  of  the  schools. 

There  is  a  small  number  of  bo3"S  in  our  schools, 
and  many  outside  of  them,  running  the  streets,  who 
are  unsafe  companions  for  other  children.  I  have 
investigated  several  cases  by  consulting  the  teachers 
and  the  parents.  In  every  case,  I  fouud  the  reason 
of  their  bad  conduct,  in  want  of  proper  home-training  ; 
in  weak  or  indulgent  parents,  who  cannot  govern  the 
domineering  habits  and  violent  tempers  of  their  chil- 
dren. These  boys  defy  the  rules  and  regulations  of 
school,  come  or  stay  away  as  it  pleases  them,  and 
generally  behave  as  though  they  were  the  lords  of  the 
realm.  It  cannot  be  denied,  that  the  street  and  home 
training  of  some  boys  is  in  crime,  lather  than  in 
virtue  ;  filthiness,  rather  than  purit}' ;  and  parents  have 
a  right  to  demand  of  the  authorities  who  assume  the 
education  of  their  children,  that  they  be  shielded 
from  the  influence  of  such  as  these. 

Now,  the  rules  of  the  Board  of  Education  concerning 
such  black  sheep  are  verj'  well  defined.  We  may  i>un- 
ish  these  boys  corporally  ;  but  it  is  always  degrading 
the  teacher  and  his  school  if  corporal  punishment  is 
resorted    to.    and    it   is   at    best    but    a   questionable 


THE   EXPEIUEN<  E   OF  A    SUPEliVISOIl.       89 

remedy.  Or,  we  may,  if  imiiislnneiit  is  of  iii»  avail. 
expel  tliein.  However,  to  expel  tliem  from  seliool. 
and  turn  them  uixjii  the  street,  would  he  the  worst 
remedy  that  eould  lie  eoneeived  of.  It  would  be 
simply  swelling  the  number  of  dangerous  elements  in 
the  community,  whose  decrease  is  one  of  the  mission- 
ary objects  of  the  public  schools.  Some  of  these 
boys,  if  not  all,  ought  to  be  in  the  house  of  refuge, 
or  on  the  Heform  Fuiiu  ;  but  commitment  to  these 
institutions  is  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  school 
authorities. 

The  oidij  f'Jf'ectual  rpnifd'/  for  cleansing  our  schools  of 
these  dangerous  elements,  and  yet  keeping  them  under 
our  charge,  is  the  establishment  of  an  ungraded  class, 
presided  over  liy  a  teacher  who  is  a  strong  disciplina- 
rian, and  who  can  exert  a  moral  influence  over  the  boys 
which  will  last  beyond  the  school  hours.  To  this  class 
the  boys  might  V)e  committcil  temporarily,  until  they 
show  such  marked  improvement  that  they  give 
assurance  of  better  conduct  in  future,  and  ma}'  be 
re-admitted  to  the  ranks  of  lluir  former  associates. 

One  of  the  foremost  educators  of  the  country 
recommended  the  establishment  of  such  a  school  in 
187o.  He  then  said,  '•'■  This  (reformatorv)  class 
should  l)oar  a  title  as  little  obnoxious  as  possible; 
but  it  should  l)e  designed  for  those  whose  influence  is 
found  to  be  pernicious  to  their  ass(M'iates,  and  who  are 
incorrigilile  by  tliose  nu-ans  of  disi'iplinc  wliicli  sci'ui 
to  be  used  in  the  schools  at  large.  Its  prin<-ipal 
purpose  is  to  guard  the  masses  of  children   imdn-  the 


90         EUUdATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DAY. 

care  of  the  Board,  from  daily  contact,  in  the  class-room 
and  on  the  ithi\-groiiud,  with  chihlrcn  whose  example 
tends  to  corrnpt  ever}'  one  about  them  ;  to  protect  the 
young  and  the  weak  from  those  whose  domineering 
habits  or  violent  tempers  make  them  unsafe  compan- 
ions." 

It  is  often  stated,  and  with  just  pride  too,  that  the 
public  schools  are  the  crucible  within  which  all  the 
various  nationalities  of  the  community  are  fused  into 
one  homogeneous  mass,  alike  in  patriotic  devotion  and 
civil  virtue.  It  is  also  stated,  that  the  school  is  a 
state  in  miniature.  If  so,  it  is  our  solemn  dut}^  to 
shield  the  mass  of  children  of  law-abiding,  virtuous 
parents,  from  contamination  with  vicious  characters, 
just  as  the  state  authorities  do,  who  single  out  crim- 
inals for  the  protection  of  societ}-.  Our  rules  here 
keep  children  out  of  school  who  are  likely  to  bring 
with  them,  from  home,  the  germs  of  a  contagious 
disease.  Why,  then,  should  we  be  obliged  to  admit, 
among  the  mass  of  children,  so-called  moral  lepers? 

We  have  reason  to  think  that  such  an  ungraded 
class  here  in  Hamilton  will  have  about  twenty  to 
twenty-five  pui)ils.  No  girl  has  ever  been  found  to 
deserve  commitment  to  such  a  reformatory.  Permit 
me,  gentlemen  of  the  Hoard,  to  submit  to  your  consid- 
eration the  adoption  of  the  following  rules,  which  are 
in  force  in  the  schools  of  Cleveland  :  — 

I.  Conditions  of  Admission.  — Whenever,  on  duo  in- 
quiry and  investigation,  it  shall  appear  to  the  principal 
of  a  school  building,  that  the  attendance  of  any  pupil, 


THE   KAI'Kh'IEXCE   OF  A    Sl'rER]' ISiJli.       91 

oitlier  1)V  reason  of  in('orri<j;il)ility  or  iiimioral  coiidiict, 
is  [)eriii(.Mous  to  the  iiiteicst  of  the  school  of  which  he  is 
:i  member,  tiie  principal  shall  refer  the  case  in  full  to 
the  sui)erintendent,  stating  the  reasons  which  may  iiave 
led  hiin  to  that  conclnsion  ;  and  at  the  same  time  he 
shall  notif}'  the  i)arents  of  said  reference  to  the  sn[)er- 
intendent.  Thereupon  the  snperinlendent  may,  after 
a  conference  with  the  [)arents,  transfer  the  said  pupil 
to  the  "ungraded  school;"  but  if  objection  to  the 
transfer  be  made,  on  the  i)art  of  the  parent,  the  sni)er- 
inteutlent  shall  suspend  the  [)Ui)il. 

II.  Return  to  Graded  School. — On  snflicient  evi- 
dence of  good  conduct,  the  sui>erintendent  may  retuiu 
a  pupil  thus  assigned  to  the  "  ungraded  school,"  back 
to  the  school  from  which  he  came,  but  not  during  the 
tern)  in  which  he  was  sent. 

III.  /Studies. — The  studies  in  this  school  shall,  so 
far  as  the  number  of  classes  will  permit,  be  the  same 
as  are  recpiired  by  the  course  of  study  prescribed  for 
the  corresi)onding  grades  of  the  internu'diate  and 
j)rimary  dei)artments ;  provided,  that  the  branches 
essential  to  classification  be  not  neglected.  In  all  other 
particulars  this  school  shall  be  governed  by  the  rules 
Sis  prescribed  for  the  other  schools  of  this  city. 

SCEXES  rnoM  .sciwol-life. 

"  I  AM  the  maddest  man  you  ever  saw,"  said  a  man 
who  came  with  a  l>igcluli  in  his  hand  into  my  ollice  one 
day.  —  "Oh.  no,  sir,  you  are  l)v  no  means  the  mad- 
dest," suiil  I  ;   '•  I  have  seen  madder  men  th.-.n  \om  are. 


92        EDVCATIOXAL    TOl'ICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

You  (l(jii't  look  like  :i  l)nit(',  you  liavc  all  tlic  airs  of  a 
<;(Mitleuian.  liut  I  suppose  soinetliiiig  very  aggravating 
has  lia[)ponecl,  and  that  you  seek  iny  assistauco."  — 
"  Then  you  are  the  sui)enntentlent,  are  you  ?"  —  '•  Yos, 
sir:  1)0  seated,  and  tell  me  what  I  can  do  for  you."  — 
''Well,  the  thing  is  this.  The  p!iu(M[)al  of  tliis  build- 
ing \vhii)i)od  iny  boy,  and  I  have  pretty  good  reasons 
to  think  my  l)oy  did  not  deserve  it."  I  held  an  in- 
vestigation instantly  ;  and  very  reliable  testimou}'  was 
brought  out,  revealing  the  fact  that  the  boy  had  re- 
ceived his  punishment  for  just  cause.  I  need  not 
reiterate  the  case  here  ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  when  I 
had  dismissed  the  boys  to  their  different  moras,  and 
was  alone  with  the  father,  he  jumped  up,  shook  my 
hand,  and  again  said,  "  Sir,  I  am  the  maddest  man  you 
ever  saw  ;  but  while  first  I  was  mad  at  the  teacher,  now 
I  am  mad  at  my  bo}'.  He  will  catch  it  when  he  gets 
home." 

"  JrsT  look  over  this  note,  if  you  please,"  said  ^Sliss 
C,  the  other  day.  It  was  a  fearfulh'  coarse  note,  both 
in  style  and  sul)stance,  of  an  equally  coarse  woman. 
Her  bo}'  had  been  spoken  to  about  his  fighting  propen- 
sities, his  use  of  slang,  his  cursing,  and  general  med- 
dlesomeness. "How  did  you  dispose  of  the  case?" 
was  my  question.  ''"NVell,  this  being  the  third  time 
jjunishment  seemed  necessary,  I  asked  the  mother  to 
come  to  your  office  at  this  hour.  I  think  you  will  find 
lier  up-stairs."  I  did  find  her  thei'e.  Her  appearance 
was  that  of  a  brutal,  coarse  nature,  who  had  fire  and 


THE   EXPERIESCK   OF  A    SCPEin'I^On.       03 

hriiiistone  in  her  cn'os.  At  my  entrance  slio  an^sc.  put 
hor  arms  akimltu,  and  addri's.scd  im;  as  follows:  ••  I 
want  you  to  undoistand,  Mr.  Superintendent,  that  my 
hoy  is  not  a  bad  Ixn'  ;  he  nuvcr  tells  a  lie,  and  is 
as  gentle  as  a  lauib,  and  I  don't  understand  why  the 
teaehcf  should  jiiek  at  my  boy  all  the  time."  I  (juietiy 
intenogatefl  her  concerning  the  boy's  playmates,  and 
then  sent  for  a  number  of  them.  N'ery  few  questions 
stilliccd  to  establish  the  guilt  of  the  boy  in  question 
indis[)ulal)ly.  The  teacher  testified  again,  in  piesence 
of  the  mother,  how  hatefully  the  boy  acted  when  he 
found  that  he  coukl  not  have  his  own  wa}'.  Then  the 
ire  of  the  mother  got  the  Ijctter  of  her,  and  she  began 
to  abuse  the  teacher.  I  [)ut  a  stop  to  tliat  at  once, 
asked  the  teacher  kindly  to  withdraw,  and  I  would  set- 
tle the  matter.  Now  I  gave  the  mother  to  understand 
that  if  the  boy  should  persist  in  his  ugly  behavior  I 
would  have  him  airested,  and  brought  before  his  honor 
the  mayor,  and  I  should  move  that  he  be  sent  to  the 
Keform  Farm. 

This  (juictcd  the  woman  wonderfully  and  quickl}'. 
She  was,  like  every  bully,  at  heart  a  coward.  She  soon 
l)egan  to  ciy,  admitted  the  boy's  badness,  and  promised 
to  keep  an  eye  on  him  in  the  future. 

SiiK  was  a  small,  not  pretty,  but  highly  intelligent 
young  teacher,  who,  not  by  a  freak  of  nature,  but  liy 
the  absolute  conlidence  of  her  superi(jrs.  had  bt'eu  as- 
signed to  a  C"  intermediate  school.  Among  her  pupils, 
was  one  who  proved  in  every  way  a  black  sheep.     He 


94         EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

caine  fioin  \vli:it  wiis  known  as  a  highly  cnUnrt'd  family, 
which  in  this  case  meant  a  very  conceited  family.  The 
father  was  a  physician.  One  day  this  Dr.  X.  came  to 
the  schoolhonse,  at  once  went  to  the  room  of  the 
teacher  in  question,  knocked,  and  asked  to  say  a  word 
to  her  in  the  corridor.  She  came  out,  and  stood  before 
this  tall  man  with  expectation  in  her  face.  This  is  the 
conversation  that  took  i)laee.  "  3Iiss  G.,  I  undrr- 
stand  that  yon  charge  my  hoy  with  having  prevaiicaled. 
How  can  you  dare  to  do  that?  "  —  '"I  never  said  he 
prevaricated.  I  am  sure  1  did  not  use  that  word,  sii-. " 
—  ^  Do  yon  mean  to  say  that  you  did  not  accuse  him 
of  prevarication?  "  —  ''  That  is  exactly  what  I  mean." 
— ''  What  did  you  say,  then  ?  "  Aud  this  small,  young, 
inexperienced  woman  of  strong  character  looked  up 
with  her  fearless  steel-! due  eyes,  like  a  lion-tamer, 
straight  into  his  enraged  countenance,  aud  said,  '''  I  did 
say  he  lied,  and  I  can  prove  that  he  did."  Not  auother 
word  was  said.  Dr.  X.  turned,  aud  left  her  aud  the 
house. 

My  observations.  —  A  boy  of  twelve  3'ears,  healthy, 
strong,  fine  head,  intelligent  but  defiant  looks,  regular 
though  dirty  face,  frequently  distorted  by  disdainful, 
ugly  smiles,  dilapidated  appearance,  clothes  torn  though 
of  good  material.  Teacher's  report.  —  Boy  played  tru- 
ant thirteen  half  days  and  ten  whole  days ;  brings 
excuses  from  liis  mother  which  are  evidently  untrue.  — 
such  as,  sore  foot,  when  the  boy  played  at  the  corners 
all  day  long  ;  sprained  hand,  when  no  sign  of  any  such 


Till-:  Exi'inirEXCE  of  a  supeiivisor.     95 

casualty  can  be  fyiind,  nay,  when  the  bo}'  himself  is 
unable  to  state  which  hand  was  sprained  ;  and  other  like 
statements.  IJoy  is  not  reliable,  neither  in  word  nor 
action  ;  is  disobedient,  unwilling  to  study  or  i)ay  atten- 
tion. His  father  sometimes  in  a  lit  of  indignation 
lashes  him  with  a  cowhide  till  he  (the  father)  is  ex- 
hausted. Whipping  in  school  is  of  no  use  ;  boy  calls 
it  tickling.  He  demoralizes  my  school.  3Ii'.  Klennn, 
what  shall  I  do  with  him? 

A  nESPECTAiJLF.-LooKiNo  but  omaciatcd  woman  with 
receding  chin,  tears  in  her  eyes,  pushes  a  boy  into  my 
ollice,  saying,  •'  There,  mister,  I  have  brought  him. 
He  won't  mind  me.  What  bli:dl  I  do?  He  won't  go 
to  school.  Can't  you  whip  him,  and  make  a  good  boy 
of  him?"  Bo;i.  —  '"There,  old  woman,  don't  tell  a 
pack  o'  lies  al»out  me,  or  I  won't  stay."  IiKjuiry  soon 
revealed  the  fact  that  the  boy  had  been  the  terror  of 
his  school,  had  demoi'alized  it  till  he  had  to  be  expelled. 
The  teachers  protested  when  they  saw  him. 

This  is  the  shady  side  of  school-life. 

PliOFESSlOXA  L   SUPER  VfSlOy. 

A  SLPEUiNTENDENT  in  the  West  has  a  rather  charac- 
teristic way  of  exercising  criticism  upon  the  work  of 
his  teachers.  He  visits  a  school  room,  sits  down  in  an 
unfre(|iienti'd  corner,  and  carefully  oliserves  what  is 
going  on.     When  he  leaves  he  makes  a  i)leasant  re- 


96         EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC f^   OF  THE    DAY. 

mark  to  the  teacher,  find,  if  the  oecnsion  seems  to  call 
for  it,  also  to  the  piii)ils.  Then  he  retires  to  his  oflice, 
and  (ills  out  a  blank  like  the  one  attached  below,  keeps 
this  on  record,  and  sends  an  exact  copy  to  the  teacher, 
—  in  closed  envelope,  of  course.  She  there  lias  it, 
black  on  white,  what  he  thinks  of  her  work,  of  her 
manner  of  teaching  and  muunging.  If  she  takes 
excc[)li()ii  to  any  of  the  superintendent's  remarks,  she 
meets  him  at  his  oOice,  and  then  and  there  the  superin- 
tendent holds  a  "  teacher's  meeting"  (a  private  one)  ; 
that  is  to  say,  makes  her  understand  what  her  mistakes 
are,  by  applying  the  test  of  principles. 

I  full  well  understand  that  this  method  of  criticising 
can  be  perverted  into  the  most  unpleasant  fault-finding, 
just  as  every  other  good  method  can  be  misapplied. 
Tile  method  is  all  right ;  it  is  only  the  manner  of  apply- 
ing it  which  may  or  may  not  make  the  thing  successful. 
If  the  teachers  know  that  their  superior  officer  means 
well,  that  he  is  kind-hearted,  and  intends  tliis  for  their 
own  advantage  as  well  as  for  that  of  the  schools,  they 
will  receive  this  written  criticism  in  the  spiiit  in  which 
it  is  offered.  Not  that  he  answers  every  query  found 
below  as  often  as  he  makes  a  visit.  No  :  sometimes 
he  finds  it  desirable  to  call  the  teacher's  attention  to 
a  very  weak  spot  in  her  management  or  mode  of  teach- 
ing, and  therefore  dwells  on  this  point,  leaving  the 
other  questions  blank. 

A  teacher  gets,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  about  a 
dozen  of  these  blanks,  partly  or  entirely  filled  out  by 
the  superintendent,  and  can   mark,  prett}'  accurately, 


Till:  i:AJ'i:j;ii:.\(h  or  a   .s/:/v;/.'r />'>//.      '.>7 

whether  she  is  gtiiiiiiii;-  in  skill  of  teaching  and  mana- 
ging, or  not.  The  qnestions  attachecl  below  are  not 
tiie  same  as  last  year.  He  changes  them  from  time  to 
time,  introdncing  a  new  feature  now  and  then,  drop- 
ping other  points  which  have  fonnd  their  way  into  the 
con)prehension  of  his  coips  of  teachers,  "  with  the  im- 
pressibility of  truth,"  as  Friend  Ilailmann  says. 

I  offer  these  questions  to  my  colleagues,  because 
they  seem  to  me  in  the  highest  degree  suggestive. 
Though  it  may  readily  be  guessed  who  the  superintend- 
ent in  question  is,  it  is  not  desirable  to  publish  his 
name.  He  is  a  modest  man,  and  might  feel  embar- 
rassed if  he  sees  his  name  in  piint. 


COPY  OF  THE   BLANK. 
■  Ward, Grade, Teacher. 

Observations  made  by  the  Svperintendent JS8..... 


QUESTIONS.  ANSWERS. 

1.  Did  the  teacher  possess  the  undivided  attention 

of  h pupils  '? 

2.  Was  h instruction  interesting  enough  to  secure 

attention  ? 

8.  Was  itoiijeetive  ?  did illustrate  it  sufTicieiitly  ? 

4.   Were  the  teacher's  st.atenients  unquestionahie  '? 

.').   Did  they  follow  each  other  in  logical  order? 

G.  Was  the  instruction  clear  and  conipri'liensilile  to 

all  ? 

7.  Had  it  practical  bearings  npon  actual  coMilitions  of 

life '.' 

8.  Did  it  seem  to  promise  lasting  nvsults  ? 

9.  Was  the  pupil's  self-activity  called  into  play  ? 


98        EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DA  V. 

QUESTIONS.  ANSWERS. 

10.  Was  the  teacher's  manner  of  questioning  correct  ? 

11.  Did show  proper  regard  to  the  pupil's  indi- 

viduaHty '? 

12.  Was  tlie  object  of  the  lesson  secured  by  practical 

application  ? 

13.  Did  the  teacher  seem  to  have  consulted  the  course 

of  study  ? 

14.  Did seem  to  have  prepared  h self  for  the 

lesson  ? 

15.  Did aid  the  pupils  in  the  development  of  new 

ideas  ? 

16.  Did  guide  the  children  in  discovering  their 

errors  ? 

17.  Did  the  pupils  speak  in  complete  sentences  ? 

IS.  Did  it  seem  as  if  the  teacher  asked  the  brighter 
pupils  only  ? 

19.  Was  the  teacher  too  talkative  ? 

20.  Were  mistakes  in  pronunciation  and  emphasis  left 

uncorrected  ? 

21.  Did  the  teacher  always  address  h questions  to 

the  whole  class  ? 

22.  Did indulge  in  repeating  the  pupil's  answer  ? 

23.  Did  say  or  do  any  thing  which   the   pupils 

might  have  said  or  done  themselves  ? 

24.  Was  the  teacher's  writing  on  the  board  commend- 

able ? 

25.  Did   the   class   seem  to   make   progress   in   their 

studies  ? 

26.  In  what  branch  of  study  did  the  class  seem  to  be 

weak  ? 

27.  Was  order  maintained  by  harsh  treatment  ? 

28.  Did  the  teacher  watch  the  class  steadily  '? 

29.  Did change  h position  unnecessarily  ? 

30.  Did ignore  faults  and  irregularities  ? 

31.  Was  the  class  quiet  '?  diligent? 


THE   EXPEUIEyCE   OF  A    Sl'PERVISOn.       99 

QUESTIONS.  ANSWEBS. 

32.  How  was   the   order   in   coming  and  going,  and 

liandling  books  and  utensils? 

33.  Was  the  teacher  just   in   praising  ?     reprimand- 

ing ? 

34.  Was consistent  in  all actions  ? 

35.  Did practise  self-command  ? 

36.  What  was  ihe  condition  of  the  atmosphere  ?  tem- 

perature ? 

Remarks: ~ 


MECIIA  NIC  A  L    VI R  TUES. 

A  FATHER  wlio  had  been  anno\'ed  consklcrahly  by 
notes  from  the  teacher  which  referred  to  his  child's 
want  of  punetnalitN',  inaccuracy,  carelessness,  and 
similar  shortcomiiit>;s,  called  at  my  oflice  one  day,  and 
expressed  his  desire  to  have  a  friendly  talk  with  me. 
He  did  not  mean  to  complain,  as  be  said,  but  desired 
information. 

Said  he,  "•  What  is  the  use  of  insisting  upon  the  chil- 
dren bcinp;  in  school  punctually  at  nine?  And  what  is 
the  use  of  insistin<^  upon  a  uniform  ruling;  of  (he  slates 
and  various  other  similar  requirements?  I  fail  to  see 
their  necessity.  You  know  it  is  dillicuit  for  the  whole 
household  to  ada\)t  itself  to  tlie  ndes  of  school :  and 
it  is  oftentimes  attended  with  mucli  heart-burnin<j:  and 
shedding  of  tears,  when  the  child  attempts  to  be 
prompt.  Now,  if  there  is  any  virtue  in  your  require- 
niLUits  and  rules,  I  fail  to  see  it." 

"  Mr.    M.,"    said    I,    "  how    have    you    become    so 


loo       EDICATIOSM.    TOI'ICS    OF   TUK    DAY. 

eouitc'oiis  a  gentlciiian?  for  everybody  who  knows  you 
atlmiies  your  uniform  kiudness  and  politeness."  — 
''Why,"  said  be,  '•  that  was  not  difficult.  I  remem- 
ber when  I  was  young,  I  was  induced  to  take  ofT  my 
hat,  and  say,  '  Good-ni(jniiiig,'  '  Good-day,'  or  whatever 
time  of  the  day  it  may  have  been.  All  that  small 
coin  of  politeness  is  simply  the  result  of  habit,  there  is 
nothing  moie  in  it.  But  what  h:is  that  got  to  do  with 
the  question  that  I  asked?" 

"■  A  great  deal,  for  you  have  struck  the  keynote  of 
my  argument.  Punctuality  is  acquired  mechanically, 
by  habitual  practice  ;  so  are  exactness,  promptness,  and 
other  virtues.  Now,  all  these  small  mechanical  virtues 
must  be  insisted  upon  in  school,  so  that  they  may  grow 
into  ethical  laws  which  are  obeyed  without  question, 
having  become  our  second  nature,  so  to  speak.  Out 
of  ethical  or  moral  virtues  grow  celestial  virtues.  The 
latter  are  far  beyond  the  code  of  law,  just  as  the  me- 
chanical virtues  are  below  it. 

'■'•  Let  me  show  you,  in  a  single  instance,  what  I 
mean.  We  insist  upon  the  boys  practising  politeness. 
This  mechanical  virtue,  politeness,  will,  as  the  bo}' 
advances  in  age,  develop  into  respect  for  others.  This 
ri'spect  is  something  that  comes  within  the  pale  of  the 
code  of  civil  law.  The  law  does  not  demand  [)olite- 
ness ;  but  it  demands  respectful  treatment  of  others, 
for  it  punishes  disrespect,  at  least  lays  the  offender 
open  to  a  suit  for  damages.  Now,  out  of  this  moral 
virtue,  respect  for  others,  grows  the  celestial  virtue, 
kindness,  which  is  completely  beyond  the  code  of  law. 


77/ A'   EXPEUIENCE  OF  A    SUPERVISOR.      101 

The  law  can  iicilhcr  enforce  politeness  nor  kindness, — 
in  other  words,  neither  a  mechanical  nor  a  celestial 
virtne. 

"  Thns  you  see,  by  this  one  example,  why  we  arc 
obliged  to  insist  iii)oii  all  those  small  virtues,  wiiicli 
in  themselves  perhaps  are  worth  little,  liut  which  are 
the  fountain-head  of  greater  virtues.  Thus  out  of  clean- 
liness grows  i)urity  ;  out  of  accuracy,  trutiifulncss ; 
out  of  piuietuality,  regularity  and  order:  and  so  on. 
If  we  allowed  your  child  to  come  to  school  at  whatever 
time  it  pleasetl,  or  if  we  allowed  it  to  follow  its  own 
iuclination  in  preparing  woriv  on  tiie  slate  or  on  paper, 
wc  would  soon  notice  a  Haw  in  tiie  child's  education. 

"•  We  teachers,  you  will  know,  are  rather  anxious 
that  our  schools  should  not  be  considered  mere  knowl- 
edge-shops, but  mstitutious  for  the  moral  and  civil 
training  of  children  as  well.  There  is  also  this  other 
fact  regarding  our  insisting  upon  punctuality,  which 
I  must  mention.  It  is,  that  the  child  thereby  learns 
that  he  is  only  one  among  a  great  iiuml)er,  who  all 
have  to  ol)e3'  the  same  law.  Equality  before  the  law 
is  a  thing  which  no  child  can  learn  unless  it  attends 
a  public  school.  The  child  taught  privately  at  home 
will  forever  be  selfishly  inclined.  However  careful 
or  consistent  your  home  training  may  l»c,  that  one 
tiling,  civil  virtue,  can  only  be  learned  in  a  community, 
and  the  sciiool  is  a  state  in  miniature." 

Mr.  .M.  aiose.  shook  hands  with  me,  and  said,  "I 
am  convinced,  and  shall  hereafter  assist  you  in  your 
endeavors  so  far  as  they  concern,  my  child."       When 


102      KDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   Till':    DAY. 

the  geiitlciiiiui  liiid  loft  my  office,  I  compared  tliis  visit 
wiili  others  from  ladies ;  and  I  could  not  help  re- 
membering Charles  Keade's  common  sense  advice  to 
oflicials,  which  is  to  this  effect:  "If  you  would  win 
over  a  man.,  uigue  with  him  :  if  a  woman,  persuade 
her." 

A    CASE   OF   UNINTENTIONAL    CRUELTY. 

j  It  was  one  of  those  rare  warm  days  in  January, 
^  when  my  daily  duties  led  me  into  a  schoolroom  at 
recess  time.  Out  in  the  yard  the  boys  and  girls 
played  to  their  heart's  content,  —  shouted,  ran,  and 
followed  the  impulses  of  nature  wliich  invigorates 
itself  by  motion  ;  while  in  the  schoolioom,  the  win- 
dows of  which  were  closed,  sat  about  twenty  pupils, 
beut  over  their  slates,  "  doing  suras."  My  first 
question  to  the  teacher  was,  "  What  are  these  pupils 
doing?  "  Ans.  —  "  They  are  kept  in  because  they  are 
backward  in  arithmetic,  having  been  absent  several 
weeks  on  account  of  measles  and  scarlet  fever." 
How  it  is  possible  that  any  sane  person  can  act  thus, 
is  almost  inconceivable.  1  argued  with  the  teacher, 
saving,  — 

"  Suppose  two  boys  lun  a  race.  In  the  middle  of 
the  course  one  of  the  boys  sprains  his  ankle  :  do  you 
expect  him  to  catch  up?  Again,  these  children  have 
lost  four  weeks  ;  they  are  weak  in  body,  tender  in 
liealth,  and  the  continuity  of  their  instruction  has 
been  broken.  I  understand  full  well  that  tiiey  are 
backward  in  many  studies  ;  but  do  you  think  that  by 


THE   EXl'KlllhXCE   OF  A    HUPEIIVISOU.      103 

depriving  tlieni  of  tlicir  recess,  and  of  tliat  liealtlifiil, 
invigorating  motion  wiiicli  is  the  result  of  i)lay,  tliey 
will  cateli  up  with  the  otliers?  If  there  are  any 
l)upiis  in  your  classroom  whose  bodily  condition 
should  he  taken  into  consideration,  it  is  tiiese.  Mots 
.saiia  in  corpore  .stoto.  How  wearied  and  pale  that 
little  girl  over  yonder  looks  I  See  how  iier  nostrils 
twitch,  her  head  jerks,  and  her  hands  tremlile.  Do 
let  us  try  an  experiment.  Please  let  these  children 
go  to  play  with  the  others,  and  then  let  us  observe 
how  they  look  when  they  come  back." 

The  teacher  did  as  I  requested ;  and  the  result  of 
her  observation  after  recess  was,  that  she  said,  ''  Kest 
assured  that  will  never  occur  again.  My  pu|)ils  shall 
have  their  recess,  and  I  shall  go  and  play  with  them." 


CHAPTER  III. 

FUNDAMENTAL   ERRORS   IN   TEACHING. 


CHAPTER  III. 

FUNDAMENTAL   ERKORS   IN   TEACHING. 
PER-CENT  SYSTEM  OF  GRADING. 

It  is  a  notable  fact,  that  while  people  will  not  buy 
an  explotletl  contrivance,  or  a  worn-out  machine,  or 
manufacture  goods  for  the  market  b}-  anti(juatetl 
methods,  but  insist  on  the  latest  improvements,  they 
seem  to  be  satisfied  witli  anti(juated  n)ethods  in  school, 
as  they  were  applied  by  the  proverbial  school-keepers 
of  yore.  And  while  they  hire  in  thi'ir  \vorkshoi)S  and 
factories  nothing  but  skilled  labor,  they  are  not  much 
troubled  when  they  see  persons  employed  as  teachers 
who  have  not  a  clear  idea  of  what  such  terms  as 
methods,  didactics,  etc.,  injply.  Poor  talent  is  fre- 
quently tolerated  iK'Canse  it  is  home  talent.  While 
peoi»le  would  ridicule  any  one  who  would  tiavel  with 
rheumatic  post-horses,  or  carry  his  n)oney  in  saddle- 
bags, instead  of  making  use  of  express-trains  and 
the  many  facilities  offered  by  our  system  of  Imnkiug, 
these  same  people  permit  their  children,  year  after 
year,  to  travel  by  anliquated  means  through  the  cur- 
riculum of  school.  People  who  advocate  good  whole- 
some food,  and  who  decry  adulteration  of  food,  iillow 
their  children  to  be  fed  with  iudigeslibU-  mental   foml, 

107 


10<S      EDUCAriOXAL    TOPICS   OF   Til!':    DAY. 

ill  f(;rm  of  giiuninar  rules  vvliich  never  did  nor  ever 
will  develop  mental  faculties  or  linguistic  skill,  but 
wliicli  were  considered  a  most  necessary  part  of  a 
scholar's  outfit  during  the  '•  good  olden  times."  A 
superintendent  cannot  cure  the  evil  radically;  all  that 
is  in  his  power  is  to  apply  i)aUiative  remedies.  The 
great  work  of  reform  must  be  accomplished  largely 
by  the  teachers.  I  deem  it  desirable  to  discuss  some 
of  the  methods  that  ought  to  give  way  to  better  ones, 
and  to  suggest  the  latter. 

Pey-Cent  System  of  Grading. — This  sj'stem  of  grad- 
ing the  pupils,  that  is,  determining  their  relative  stand- 
ing in  the  class  on  a  scale  of  one  hundred,  has  gre.atly 
undermined  the  teacher's  value.  It  has  brought  it 
about,  that  pui)ils  think  that  their  close  attention  to 
every-day  duties  is  not  needed,  that  '•  stutlying  up  " 
at  the  close  of  the  term  will  secure  them  the  necessary 
"per  cents."  And  this,  to  speak  candidly,  is  argu- 
ing correcth".  Since,  according  to  the  per-cent  sys- 
tem, all  examination  questions  must  be  matter-of-fact 
questions,  so  that  they  ma}'  be  marked  on  a  scale  of 
one  hundred,  it  will  be  easily  seen  that  facts  tem- 
porarily stored  up  in  the  memory  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  passing  the  examination.  .  This  is  contrary 
to  the  principles  of  sound  and  rational  education, 
which  condenni  such  a  method  of  acquiring  knowledge 
as  false  and  pernicious.  In  order  to  imi)rove  the 
teaching,  and  bring  it  back  to  sound  and  rational 
principles,  we  must  take  away  the  high  pressure  of 
the  per-cent  system  ;    first,   by   doing  away   with  the 


FUNDAMEyTAl.    KliHOIiS    I.\    TEACIIISC.      1<)'.) 

sonic  wliicli  suggests  the  mode  of  questioning;  second, 
change  the  mode  of  dry,  matter-of-fact  <iue?>ti<jning, 
which  conditions  the  mode  of  teaching  ;  third,  change 
our  mode  of  teaching  in  order  to  complN'  with  the 
rcfiuiiements  of  nature  and  actual  life. 

The  remedy  I  suggest  is  simple.  Let  the  pujjils' 
papers  be  examined  by  the  teacher,  and  let  her  mark 
them  '■  very  good,"  "  good,"  '•  satisfactory,"  or 
"•  poor;  "  any  similar  expressions  will  suffice.  This  is 
recommended,  not  only  for  the  reason  specified  above, 
but  for  the  further  reason  that  in  tiiis  ca^e  the  indi- 
viduality of  the  puj)!!  may,  and  undoubtedly  will  be, 
considered.  The  per-cent  system  is  not  fiexible :  it 
submits  every  pui)il  to  its  cast-iron  rule.  It  (h^es  not 
take  the  pupils'  natural  gifts  into  consideration,  simply 
because  the  answers  to  questions  like  this  one,  ^  What 
seaport  in  Alabama?"  can  onlj'  l)e  right  or  wrong. 
There  is  no  alternative.  Now,  give  five  or  ten  of 
such  questions,  and  let  the  men)ory  of  a  hoy  who  is 
to  answer  them  be  weak  for  geographical  data ;  and 
tlie  likelihood  is,  tiiat  he  comes  out  of  such  an  ex- 
amination plucked  and  mortified,  his  si)irit  dampened, 
his  iuterest  gone,  and  his  ambition  will  lead  him  to 
gather,  only  for  temporary  use,  just  such  '•  tidl)its 
of  knowledge,"  and  then  try  again.  The  same  boy 
may  have  a-  very  creditable  amount  of  geographical 
knowledge  ;  only  it  is  all  connected  oi'ganically  with 
previous  cognitions  in  form  of  associations  of  thought, 
and  he  would  make  a  most  creditable  showing  if  ln' 
were  asked  to  make  an  imaginary  journey  along   the 


110      EDUdATIONAL    TOI'Jfs   OF   THE   DAY. 

coast  of  the  Mexican  Cliilf,  and  state  what  countries, 
rivers,  harbors,  seaports,  etc.,  he  would  touch. 

There  is  also  an  unpardonable  injustice  in  saying, 
"This  child  has  reached  ninety  per  cent,  the  other 
only  sixty  per  cent."  Who  knows  but  that  the  sixt}' 
per  cent  is  the  result  of  hard  and  earnest  toil  of  a  boy 
who  may  ha,ve  labored  under  disadvantages  which  the 
other  boy  who  reached  ninety  [)er  cent  never  knew? 
Who  knows  but  that  the  sixty-per-ceut  boy,  if  meas- 
ured b}'  a  hitherto  unknown  scale,  would  far  outrank 
the  other  in  character,  in  steadfastness  of  purpose, 
in  virtue,  in  tenacity,  in  moral  strength,  and  in  other 
regards?  While  the  ninety-per-ceut  boy,  perhaps, 
was  surrounded  by  all  the  advantages  which  a  home 
of  culture  and  refinement  offers,  the  sixty-per-ceut 
boy,  perhaps,  could  attend  school  but  half  the  time, 
and  had  to  help  support  tlie  famil}- ;  and  yet  he 
readied  sixty  per  cent !  The  injustice  is  so  glaring 
that  it  cries  for  redress. 

There  is  also  this  to  be  argued  against  the  per-cent 
system,  at  least  so  far  as  it  is  found  in  the  primary 
grades  :  It  is  the  using  of  terms  which  are  incompre- 
hensible to  the  small  child.  He  understands  if  we 
say  an  exercise  is  done  well  or  not  well.  But  to 
mark  the  child's  work  eighty-five  per  cent,  sixt}-  per 
cent,  etc.,  is  about  as  intelligible  to  him  as  marking 
it  Popocatepetl  or  Parallelopipedon  ;  in  other  words, 
it  is  using  a  symbol  where  uo  symbol  as  yet  is 
desirable. 


FL'^fDAMENTAL    KHHOHS   /.V    IK  At  11  ISC      HI 

COMPEriTlON   IN   SCHOOL. 

The  high  pressure  of  tlie  per-eent  system  on  one 
hand,  competition  caused  b\'  too  many  examiiiatioiis 
on  the  other,  crushes  out  all  indivichiality.  and  makes 
our  boys  and  girls  men  and  women  of  wiiom  thirteen 
do  not  make  a  dozen.  "Competition  is  a  curse, 
because  it  treats  children  as  if  they  were  all  endowed 
with  the  same  aptitude,"  says  a  writer  in  a  recent 
number  of  an  educational  journal.  "  Overwork  on  the 
one  side,"  he  says,  "  coupled  with  self-conceit ;  despair 
on  the  other,  coupled  with  the  entire  loss  of  energy, 
—  are  the  results  of  competition  in  our  schools."  He 
also  remarks  that  "competition  is  immoral,  because 
it  is  based  upon  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest; 
which,  however  natural  it  may  be,  is  not  a  moral  law." 

Now,  as  to  the  number  of  examinations,  and  as  to 
their  mode,  the  superintendent,  l>y  virtue  of  his  posi- 
tion, has  the  decision  in  his  hand.  lUit  that  does  not, 
and  can  not.  remove  competition  from  the  schools 
entirely,  since  in  some  classes  the  teacher  does  noth- 
ing but  examine  all  day.  The  following  sarcastic 
statement  is  the  gist  of  an  aitide  upon  this  subject 
from  the  pen  of  Su[)eriutend('iit  Aaron  fiove  of  Den- 
ver, a  most  accomplished  leader  of  educational  atTairs 
in  the  West:  "Teachers  are  not  teaching;  they  are 
drifting.  A  pupil  is  assigned  a  task.  Soon  he  is 
exiuniued.  When  he  lias  denioiisti-att'd  the  accom- 
plishment of  his  task,  he  is  excused.  The  recitation 
is  concluded.     He  is  assigned  another  task.     An  exam- 


112      KDVCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  TIIK    DAY. 

ination  detcrmiiies  its  pcifonnanco.  So  i.s  composed 
the  (hiily  routine.  He  is  tested,  tried  constanll}'.  If 
lie  does  not  know  a  certain  tiling,  he  is  aslced  to  loolv 
it  u[)  in  his  text-book.  At  evening  the  father  spends 
a  tired  hour  in  instructing.  He  wonders  what  teachers 
do  during  the  da}'.  The  pupil  learns  that  recitatioD  is 
examination.  He  must  present  results,  no  matter  how 
he  ol)taiued  them.  Ponies  and  keys  are  useful.  Xhe 
home  furnishes  a  little  poor  help.  Tiie  world  has 
passed  beyond  the  need  of  teachers.  School  is  a  place 
in  which  to  sit  and  tell  daily  what  has  been  learned 
from  books.  All  requisites  are  in  the  l)ook.  Proper 
application  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  will  appropriate 
them.  The  chief  duties  of  the  adult  person  in  the 
schoolroom  are  to  prevent  riot,  and  to  examine 
pupils." 

Is  this  an  exaggeration  ?  God  may  grant  it !  These 
daily  examinations  rob  the  pupil  of  that  tranquillity 
without  which  no  healthy  mental  growth  is  possiI)le  ; 
it  defrauds  the  teacher  of  the  opportunity  of  applying 
herself  to  the  weaker  pupils,  and  lend  them  a  helping 
hand,  because  she  spends  her  time  in  marking  her 
pupils'  work  on  a  scale  of  one  hundred,  and  to  write 
examination  questions  on  the  board. 

The  per-cent  system  subjects  all  the  pupils  of  a 
class  to  the  treatment  of  Strasburg  geese,  which  are 
fed  in  close  confinement  —  that  is,  noodled  as  the  tech- 
nical term  has  it  —  till  tlieir  livers  are  unnaturally 
lai'ge  ;  onlv  that  it  is  the  memor}'  of  the  children  which 
IS  thus  noodled. 


Fl\\DAM7i:\TAL    Eimons    7.V    rKACIIlXd.      ll-T 

This  mode  of  daily  ooini)otitivo  examinations  acts 
like  inildi'w  upon  the  work  of  [nipils,  and  shonld 
speedily  give  way  to  teaching.  It  it*  l»iit  jiiwt  t(;  .say, 
that  many  of  our  teaclici-.s  have  recognized  the  evil 
influence  of  the  per-cenL  system  and  competitive 
exan)iiiations,  aud  now  si)end  their  time  in  occupation 
for  tc/iiih  they  loere  engitged  by  thi-  authorities.  Enter- 
ing a  schoolroom,  it  can  at  once  he  seen  whether  such 
a  teacher,  or  a  mere  school-keeper,  holds  sway.  In  the 
schoolroom  of  the  teacher,  the  pu[)ils  arc,  as  a  rule, 
more  eager  to  learn  than  in  the  one  where  daily  exam- 
inations are  held  ;  and  that  painful  anxiety  so  often 
visible  upon  the  [jupils'  faces,  which  l)lights  r.ll  joys 
and  pleasures  of  life,  will  not  l>e  found.  The  teacher 
bears  in  mind,  that  no  two  pupils  are  gifted  alike 
by  iNIother  Nature,  just  as  little  as  she  produci>s  two 
leaves  exactly  alike.  The  inevitabh"  ditTcri'nce  in  a[)ti- 
tude,  in  power  of  comprehension  and  application,  found 
among  children,  is  taken  into  consideration  ;  and  each 
l)ui)il  is  permitted  and  led  to  go  to  the  limits  of  his 
capabilities.  The  school-keeper,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  believes  in  grading  on  the  scale  of  one  hundred, 
spurs  his  pu[)ils,  drives  and  pushes  them  by  means  of 
competitive  examinations,  considering  them  :dl  alikt; 
in  natural  endownuMits  and  capabilities;  and  (he  ..hort, 
but  impf)rtant,  educational  law,  '•' Individualize,"  *is 
unkntMvn  to  him. 


114      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

MEMOniZING    THE  PRINTED  PAGE. 

Another,  though  not  the  last,  and  by  no  means  the 
least,  of  the  antediluvian  fossils  found  in  sehool-teaeh- 
ing,  is  the  reliance  of  teachers  and  pupils  on  books ; 
rote-learning,  or  unproductive  memorizing  of  text- 
books. When  we  see  children  learn  by  heart  from 
the  printed  page  such  disconnected,  though  highly 
flavored,  tidbits  of  information  found  almost  on  every 
j)age  of  the  text-books  of  geography ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, "  Extensive  forests  of  deciduous  trees  cover  the 
greater  part  of  this  section."  "The  stone  mountain 
in  DeKalb  County  is  a  great  curiosity."  "Indian 
mounds  of  an  unknown  antiquity  are  found  in 
Georgia."  "'•Zenith'  and  'nadir'  are  two  Arabic 
terms  imparting  their  own  signification,"  —  we  can- 
not but  thank  kind  Providence  for  having  gifted 
the  human  memory  with  the  happy  faculty  of  throw- 
ing off  what  has  not  gone  tbrougli  the  mill  of  rea- 
son and  understanding.  What  a  frightful  waste  of 
energj'  is  there  in  schools  where  such  unpalatable  and 
indigestible  matter  is  set  before  the  pupils  who  are 
told  to  "  study  "  their  geography'  lesson  !  Or  when  we 
see  children  try  to  "  figure  out,"  or  mechanically  solve 
problems  in  arithmetic,  hy  appl3'ing  rules  committed  to 
memory  from  the  text-book,  instead  of  rules  which  are 
the  direct  result  of  practice  and  reasoning,  we  cannot 
but  aibnit  that  there  is  more  than  one  grain  of  truth  in 
the  indignant  remark  of  a  great  lecturer:  "Our  coun- 
try has  become  great,  not  because  of  its  public- school 
system,  but  despite  of  it." 


FVyDAMEMAL    KL'HoHS    1.\    TEACIII.Xa.      llo 

Or  when  we  hear  children  recite  grammar  rnles,  and 
l)rattle  about  numeral  adjectives,  correlative  conjunc- 
tions, or  causal  adverbial  clauses,  or  inseparable 
phrases,  or  subordinate  propositions,  or  co-ordinate 
forms  of  conjugation,  and  the  like,  byfore  they  can 
give  an  intelligent  account  of  an  event,  or  even  give 
utterance  to  a  simple  thought  without  doing  violence 
to  their  mother-tongue,  we  cannot  but  stand  in  unite 
astonishment,  and  wonder  at  the  incongruities  which 
exist  between  the  requirements  of  life  and  those  of  the 
schoolmaster. 

Memorizing  the  text-book  is  but  a  poor  substitute 
for  true  knowledge.  It  is  a  sad  mistake  to  think 
children  of  our  primal}'  and  intermediate  grades  gain 
much  valuable  knowledge  from  text-books.  Pupils  of 
riper  age  and  adults  may,  and  unquestionably  do,  gain 
knowledge  fiom  the  printed  pages :  young  children  do 
not.  There  are  two  kinds  of  knowledge, —  (1)  that 
which  has  become  part  of  our  being,  having  l)een  men- 
tally assimilated,  as  it  were;  and  (2)  that  with  which 
we  stuff  our  [lockcts  (our  memory).  Those  who  learn 
for  the  sake  of  passing  an  examination  merely  stuff 
their  pockets.  This  is  done  nnich  faster  than  in  the 
other  way.  Those  who  chew  tlu'ir  mental  food,  digest 
and  assimilate  it.  may  at  times  get  discouragetl  at  tin- 
seemingly  small  amount  they  gain ;  but  since  they 
learn  thoroughly,  they  can  never  lose  it  again,  and  in 
the  end  are  tlie  gainers.  True  knowledge  is  logically 
and  naturally  linked  with  previous  cognitions. 

^uch  knowledye  is  experience,  while  the    pui>il   wiio 


no      EDUCATIONAL    TOriCS   OF  TIIK    DAT. 

stuffs  liis  iiu'inoiy  is  ever  obli<re(l  to  fill  it  uncvv  ;  his 
knowledge  is  of  ;i  fleeting  nutiiic.  Besides,  he  weakens 
his  memory  b}^  mentally  swallowing  and  not  digesting. 
If  we  look  at  our  psychological  organs  as  we  do  at 
our  physiological  organs,  we  cannot  fail  to  notice  the 
striking  resemblance.  A  person  who  learns  1)3-  using 
his  five  senses,  and  is  made  to  clearly  understand  the 
logical  connection  between  new  knowledge  and  previ- 
ous cognitions,  will  find  himself  gaining  in  intellectual 
strength.  History  and  our  own  cvery-da}'  ex[)erience 
tell  us  that  it  is  these  very  persons  who  make  tluii- 
mark  in  the  world,  who  prove  to  be  the  strongest  and 
bravest  in  the  battle  of  life. 

Sa\'s  a  gifted  writer,  in  "  Intelligence  :  "  "  The  pro- 
test against  mechanical  education,  against  cramming 
and  working  for  per  cents,  is  timelj%  and  cannot  be  loo 
strongly  put.  The  protest,  however,  is  hurled  prop- 
erly against  a  false  method  of  imparting  knowledge. 
If  the  mechanical  methods  were  successful  in  convey- 
ing knowledge,  the  fact  that  they  are  mechanical  would 
not  stand  against  them.  If  you  can  cram  knowledge 
into  children,  in  God's  name  do  it;  but  yoii  cannot. 
The  student  who  is  crammed  is  not  intelligent :  he 
does  not  know  facts ;  he  gains  neitlier  information 
nor  discipline.  There  is  no  mechanical  wa}'  of  pro- 
viding intellectual  results.  Dean  Swift's  Academy  of 
Laputa  is  not  what  is,  but  only  what  Gulliver  saw. 
Why  should  we  try  the  experiment  of  writing  a 
geometrical  problem  on  a  wafer,  and  compelling  our 
pupil  to  swallow  it,  in  order  to  impress  the  demonstra- 


FUNDAMENTAL    EUR01IS    IN    TKACIIINa.      117 

tion  on  liis  hi-aiii?  The  olijcct  of  toacliiiii>'  is  to  store 
the  mind  witli  knowledge  ;  but  it  is  also  to  develop 
mental  power  and  moral  eharacter.  The  aeqnisition 
and  retention  of  exat-t.  systematie,  true,  good,  and 
beantifnl  kucwledge,  ei-eates  a  clear  mind  and  a  pni'c 
heart.  Knowledge  and  |)owei'  are  (^ne  ;  they  eoalesee 
and  become  wisdom,  the  prize  that  is  pn-eions  above 
rubies." 

BAM  MINA  TION  QUESTIONS. 

IIeke    is  a  set  of   questions  of   the  old  customary 
type  :  — 

Wliat  isthmus  joins  Xorth  and  South  America? 
What  cajtc  projects  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  ? 
What  ishmd  east  of  (irecnland? 
What  great  river  empties  Into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico? 
What  river  empties  into  the  Arctic  Ocean? 
What  country  south-oast  of  Mexico  ? 
What  country  north  of  Xcw  Eiiglami  ? 
What  is  the  largest  river  in  \e\v  England  ? 
Which  is  the  smallest  of  the  Middle  States? 
What  seaport  in  South  Carolina? 

And  here  is  another  set  of  similar  questions  :  — 

IIow  many  hones  in  the  hand  ? 
Isame  the  hones  of  the  skull. 
State  composition  of  the  hones. 
What  is  the  oiTice  of  the  heart  ? 
What  are  arteries  ?     Veins  ? 
Name  the  digesdve  organs. 
IIow  many  teeth  has  man  ? 
Describe  the  structure  of  tlic  ear. 
Describe  the  structure  of  a  muscle. 


118      EDUCATIONAL    rOPTCS   OF   THE   DAY. 

These  are  patent  questions  suggested,  na}',  required, 
by  the  al)oniinaljle  sN'steni  of  grading  l)y  per  cents.  If 
we  do  away  with  this  mode  of  giading  papers  and 
pupils,  we  ean  ask  questions  of  wider  hearing.  — (jues- 
tions,  the  answering  of  which  will  permit  the  pupil  to 
show  his  skill  in  ajjplying  language  ;  to  give  a  full 
account  of  certain  branches  of  knowledge,  as  far  as  he 
has  mastered   them  ;  and  show  be  not  only  ichat 

he  knows,  but  how  he  knows  it. 

Acting  upon  this  suggestion,  it  would  be  well  to 
change  the  customary  examination  (juestions.  Instead 
of  such  questions  as  the  above,  we  might  submit  some 
like  these  :  — 

Geofiraphij.  —  If  you  were  to  make  a  voyairo  from  Copenhagen 
to  Rome,  along  the  coast  of  Western  Europe,  what  countries 
would  you  pass?  Mention  all  iiiip(jrtaiit  rivers,  tlie  mouths  of 
wliicli  you  would  pass  on  this  voyage.  Mention  large  seaports, 
also  the  capitals  of  the  countries  you  pass.  Mention  the  moun- 
tain ranges  and  two  important  lakes  situated  in  Western 
Europe.  State  what  people  inhabit  these  different  countries, 
and  what  language  they  speak,  etc.  Suppose  a  straight  line  be 
drawn  from  Washington  to  San  Francisco,  state  througli  wliat 
States  and  Territories  this  line  would  go.  Mention  large  cities 
south  and  north  of  this  line.  Mention  the  different  mountain 
ranges  and  large  rivers  the  line  will  cross,  etc.  Describe  the 
Ohio  Valley;  extent,  rivers,  watersheds,  lakes  (if  any),  canals, 
cities,  manufactories,  natural  products,  means  of  commerce, 
etc.  Wliy  is  Salt  Lake  salt,  and  Lake  Erie  not  ?  Why  are 
rivers  on  the  east  side  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  so  much 
shorter  than  those  on  the  west  ?  Why  does  the  Miami  River 
flow  south  ?  What  States  are  drained  by  the  Mississippi  ? 
Why  is  the  climate  of  Oregon  nuich  warmer  than  that  of  Min- 
nesota ?    Name  the  principal  waters  that  wash  the  shores  of 


FUNDAMENTAL    ERRORS   IN    TEACHING.      119 

North  America.  How  would  you  (ravel  l)y  water  from  Hamil- 
ton to  New  Orleans?  Mention  the  hi,<;hest  mountains  in 
iSouth  America;  the  largest  river;  the  largest  state;  four  of 
the  most  important  cities;  two  islands;  two  seajiorts,  etc. 
Describe  a  journey:  select  your  own  point  of  destination. 

United  States  Uistory.  —  Give  a  short  account  of  the  mound- 
builders.  What  led  to  the  re-discovery  of  America  by  Colum- 
bus ?  Describe  the  Spanish  explorations  in  the  South-west. 
State  how  the  several  Colonies  were  governed.  Give  a  short 
account  of  William  rcnii  and  his  colony.  Give  a  short  account 
of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  What  were  the  causes  of  tlie 
Eevolutionary  War?  Define  the  terms  "revolution"  and  "re- 
bellion." State  some  leading  ideas  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. 

General  [listor;/.  —  What  are  the  sources  of  our  knowledge  of 
Babylonian,  Assyrian,  and  Chaldtean  history  ?  State  what  you 
learned  of  the  culture  of  the  Shemitic  races.  State  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  PhoL'niciau  state  ;  a  few  dates.  Give  an  account 
of  the  early  history  of  the  Flebrews  ;  three  dates.  State  what 
you  learned  of  the  customs  and  culture  of  the  ancient  Egj'p- 
tians.  What  did  Solon  and  Pericles  do,  that  they  deserve  to  be 
classeil  among  the  greatest  of  men  ?  Describe  the  heroic  death 
of  Leonidas  and  his  three?  hundred  Spartans.  Give  a  short 
account  of  the  life  and  career  of  Tiberius  Gracchus.  State 
some  causes  of  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  Republic.  Give  an 
account  of  the  Roman  conquests  in  Gaul  and  Germany. 

I'hijsiuloi/i/. — Describe  the  teeth.  State  how  they  an;  pre- 
served, and  what  makes  them  decay  early.  State  difference 
between  teeth  and  bones.  Give  rules  of  liygiene  of  the  bones. 
(Examples.)  Describe  the  anatomy  of  the  muscular  system. 
Give  a  description  of  the  anatomy  of  the  circulatory  organs. 
Give  an  account  of  the  physiology  of  the  digestive  organs. 
State  hygienic  rules  regarding  the  respiratory  organs. 

[NoTK.  —  In  making  these  statenjents,  confine  yourself  to  the 
essentials.  Lead-pencil  sketches  in  the  margin,  illustrating 
the  sul).ie<,'t  matU'r,  will  greatly  enhance  th<!  value  of  the  work.] 


I'lO      KUUCATIONAL    TOPICS   or   TIIK    f)AV. 

Natural  Philasojilnj.  —  Describe  the  roimiion  Hfting-piinip 
and  the  force-pump.  State  the  underlying  principles.  Describe 
the  liydrostatic  or  hydraulic  press.  Principles.  Describe  an 
artesian  well.  Principles.  Define:  Matter,  Inertia,  Elasticity, 
Energy,  Gravitation.  Describe  the  formation  of  primary  and 
secondary  rainbows.  State  why,  of  all  the  colors,  red  is  always 
at  the  top  in  a  primary  bow.  Where  is  it  in  a  secondary  bow, 
and  why  ?  Show  why  the  image  of  an  object  is  as  far  behind 
the  mirror  as  the  object  is  in  front.  Describe  the  human  ear, 
and  state  the  functions  of  its  principal  parts.  Give  one  impor- 
tant law  of  acoustics.  Describe  an  organ-pipe,  also  a  string- 
instrument,  anil  show  liow  sound  is  produced. 

|NoTE. — Lead-pencil  sketches  in  the  text,  illustrating  the 
subject  matter,  will  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the  work.] 

Literature. — State  in  chronologic  order  what  races  inhal>- 
ited  Great  Britain,  or  ruled  over  it.  What  are  the  components 
of  the  English  language  now?  State  King  Alfred's  literary 
influence.  Give  a  short  biographical  sketch  of  Chaucer.  State 
the  plan  of  the  Canterbury  Tales.  Give  leading  features  of 
"The  Faerie  Queene."  What  is  the  literary  importance  of 
Edmund  Spenser?  What  is  said  about  the  early  theatres? 
What  is  commonly  understood  by  the  term  "literature"? 
Give  a  brief  account  of  John  Milton's  literary  career.  Give 
an  account  of  Bacon's  political  success  and  disgrace.  Give  a 
brief  synopsis  of  Sliakspeare's  "  Hamlet."  State  Shakspeare's 
influence  in  the  histoiy  of  the  English  language.  Give  the 
titles  of  three  historical,  two  semi-liistorical  or  legendary,  and 
five  fictitious  plays  of  Shakspeare. 

The  above  questions  are  inserted  merely  to  show  the 
nature  of  the  examinations  that  Tvere  held  under  my 
direction.  They  are  suggestive  both  to  teachers  and 
pui)ils,  and,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  may  show  the  way  out 
of  the  mire  of  mechanical  memorv-cramming,  into 
rational  teaching.       In  tlie  high  school,  it  should   be 


FUNDAMEXTAL    EHHOIIS    I\    TEACIIIXG.      Vl\ 

the  custom  to  give  out,  at  the  end  of  eacli  ti'ini.  a 
limited  number  of  themes  from  each  stud}'  (except 
mathematics),  and  each  i)upil  should  be  permitted  to 
choose  one  of  them,  and  to  write  as  complete  a  dis- 
sertation as  possible  upon  that  subject.  These  essays 
are  either  satisfactory,  or  they  are  not.  In  the  latter 
case,  a  second  examination  may  be  required.  This 
procedure  will  make  the  gauging  of  ciiildrcn's  intel- 
lectual depth  by  per  cents  impossible.  It  will  make 
the  teacher's  instruction  more  rational  and  thorough. 
It  will  teach  the  pupils  to  learn  well.  But,  aliove 
all.  it  will  cause  their  power  of  application  to  grow. 
It  will  make  a  language  lesson  of  every  lesson, 
even  in  arithmetic,  since  it  obliges  them  to  express 
Avell  what  they  have  learned.  Granted,  that  this  is 
not  making  the  work  of  the  teacher  easier;  but  it 
need  scarcely  be  asserted,  that  the  schools  are  not 
maintained  for  the  better  accommodation  of  teachers. 

FROM   Till-:   FRYING-PAN   INTO    THE   FIRE. 

Di'RiXG  the  last  ten  years,  school  education  in  this 
country  has  received  a  new  im[)ulse  ;  and  one  of  the 
most  objectionalile  features  of  school  work  in  former 
3'ears,  namely,  the  custom  of  subjecting  pupils  to  the 
hardship  of  too  n)any  written  examinations,  has  been 
frequently  and  savagely  attaeketl.  I  ought  to  add, 
justly,  because  the  evil  etTects  of  fretjuent  written 
examinations  can  scarcely  be  estimated,  particularly  if 
their  results  are  marked  upon  the  scale  of  one  hun- 
dred.    There  is  a  complete  chain  of  cause  and  effect 


122      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'IfS   OF  Till':    J)AV. 

ill  this  matter.  Tlw  scale  used  in  marking  ueressi- 
tates  a  peculiar  uiode  of  (jiiestiouiug ;  that  is  to  say, 
little  matter-of-fact  (luestious  must  be  asked,  in  order 
to  gauge  the  answers  on  a  scale  of  one  hmidred,  or 
any  other  mathematical  scale.  Teachers,  knowing  the 
kind  of  questions  to  be  asked,  fashion  their  instruction 
to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  examination.  Thus 
they  lay  undue  weight  upon  the  development  of  the 
memory,  overloading  the  mental  stomach  of  their 
pupils  with  facts  which  are  very  easily  forgotten 
after  the  examination  is  over.  Pupils,  knowing  by 
experience  what  kind  of  examinations  are  given,  learn 
accordingly ;  that  is,  acquire  knowledge  in  such  a 
manner  as  will  assure  them  good  results  on  examina- 
tion-day. All  rational  teaching  is  thus  killed  in  the 
bud. 

It  has  come  to  be  well  understood,  that  the  teacher 
is  to  be  a  teacher,  and  not  a  mere  school-keeper  and 
task-master ;  and  the  better  that  fact  came  to  be 
understood,  the  greater  and  more  obstinate  became  the 
opposition  and  justifiable  wrath  against  the  stultifying 
examinations,  the  number  of  which  was  reduced  at 
various  points  at  first  from  ten  to  five,  from  live  to 
three,  and  in  some  places  even  to  one  per  year. 
Promotions  were  based  partly  upon  the  results  of 
examinations,  partly  upon  the  recommendations  of 
the  teachers,  who  expressed  their  judgment  by  add- 
ing the  word  prepared^  or  doubtful,  or  miprepared,  after 
tlie  names  of  the  pupils  in  the  class-record.  This 
mode  was  adopted  some  years  ago  in  Hamilton,  and 


.  Fuyj)AME.\'T.\L  Eni:oi:s  i\  teach  inc.     liin 

it  works  very  well.  It  ivcounizos  the  teacher's  value, 
and  it  shows  the  pupils  that  the  faithful  discharge  of 
their  daily  duties  will  count  when  it  coiues  to  a  linal 
judgment  at  the  dose  of  the  year. 

Of  late,  a  very  oltjectional)le  and  detrimental  step 
with  regard  to  promotions  has  been  recommended  in 
various  places.  The  fatal  result  of  making  promo- 
tions dependent  u[)on  written  examinations,  and  the 
evil  inrtueuce  it  has  upon  the  daily  work  in  the  class- 
room, was  at  once  conceded  ;  and,  therefore,  written 
examinations  were  abolished.  In  their  stead,  was  put 
a  system  of  daihj  markiiir/.  I  need  not  describe  this 
any  further ;  the  word  carries  with  it  its  own  defini- 
tion. Teachers,  principals,  and  editors  of  the  daily 
press,  intelligent  and  otherwise,  highly  applauded  the 
new  measure.  The  panacea  of  all  educational  evils 
seemed  to  have  been  found. 

Let  us  see  whether  the  new  plan  can  be  recom- 
mended.    Of  what  does  it  consist? 

Any  good  daily  programme  of  school-work  has  no 
less  than  five  lessons.  I  need  not  enumerate  them. 
The  teacher  sits  at  her  desk,  pencil  in  hand,  and 
the  class-record  before  her.  Let  the  fiist  lesson  be 
arithmetic.  A  certain  number  of  problems  are  given 
out.  They  are  worked.  Now  the  work  is  examined, 
and  the  results  are  recorded, — so  many  lOO's,  so 
many  90's,  so  many  80's,  etc.,  nd  infinitum  aeid  ad 
nanse<im.  There  is  no  time  for  teaching.  The 
teacher  is  degraded  to  a  mere  mnrhituj  mKchino. 
The    hour  is   past.       IVrhaiJS    geography  is  taken    up 


124     KurcAiioxAL  roi'ifs  of  the  day. 

now.  The  lesson  (the  F^ord  f()r<2;iv('  the  irony  of  this 
term  I)  consists  in  heurini;  tlie  [JUjiils  recite  whiit  they 
memorized  from  the  printed  page  ;  and  as  they  pro- 
ceed, they  receive  tlieir  mariv  wiiicli  is  instantly 
recorded.  Demonstrations  on  the  hoard,  and  inves- 
tigation of  maps,  exi)lanation,  Socratic  (piestioning, 
and  all  that  is  justly  considered  part  of  rational  teach- 
ing, is  prevented  by  the  necessity  of  recording  marks. 
Thus  the  spelling-lessons  are  raerel}'  recitations  of 
words  crammed  and  jammed  into  the  memory,  there 
to  abide  only  for  the  time  being ;  and  every  pupil  of 
common-sense  will  amend  the  Scripture  word  so  as  to 
read,  "  Sniricient  unto  the  day  is  the  nonsense  there- 
of." But  I  must  stop  here,  or  the  fair  reader  will  lay 
down  the  book,  loathing  the  sight  of  the  picture  I  am 
delineating. 

The  monthly  and  term  examinations  are  aliolished, 
and  dnily  exinninations  are  put  in  their  places.  That's 
the  long  and  the  short  of  it.  to  use  a  little  wholesome 
slang.  From  three,  four,  or  five  examinations  p.er 
year,  the  number  is  raised  to  two  hundred ;  and  this 
is  what  is  called  progress.  Comenius,  Pestalozzi. 
Locke,  Rousseau.  Diesterweg,  and  Horace  Manu  will 
tinni  in  their  graves  when  they  hear  of  this  wonderful 
progress. 

It  will  be  said  that  this  system  of  daily  marking 
does  not  necessarily  prevent  rational  teaching.  No, 
it  does  not :  but  I  have  yet  to  see  the  horse  that  can 
walk  straight  in  a  circular  treadmill :  and  I  have  yet 
to  see  the  pupil  who  will  have  eyes  and   ears  for  any 


FUyDAMEMAL    /^/.'/.'O/.'X    7.V    TKACII I \<;.      1  l!.") 

thing  but  his  marks,  if  he  knows  that  upon  that  tender 
thread  hangs  his  chance  of  promotion  :  and  I  iiave 
yet  to  see  the  teacher's  character  tiiat  can  cope  with 
an  iiifhienco  so  deadening,  with  a  routine  so  sttiltify- 
ing.  and  with  a  custc^m  so  degrading,  as  the  daily 
examinations  and  (haily  marking. 

P^xaminations  are  very  useful  institutions ;  it  is 
onh'  their  abuse  whicli  makes  tliem  objectionable : 
but  let  them  be  examinations,  not  '' examinationlets." 
Let  there  be  a  reasonable  number  of  them,  not  two 
hundred  a  year.  Do  not  make  promotions  dependent 
upon  the  examination  wl'.olly  ;  but  let  their  results  be 
accompanied  by  a  recommendation  from  the  teacher 
who  knows  tlie  pupil,  and  has  had  opportunities  to 
study  him  all  the  year  round.  Where  the  system  of 
daily  marking  is  adopted,  the  school  authorities  make 
a  grave  and  serious  mistake.  They  actually  '"kill" 
the  school,  and  make  of  it  a  drilling  institution  ;  and  the 
art  of  teaching  is  thus  degraded  to  a  handicraft. 

How  true  are  the  words  of  a  great  American  lecturer 
who  said,  "  Every  thing  American  is  a  fusion  of  dis- 
tant and  antagonistic  elements.  Active  intt-lleet, 
practical  skill,  world-wide  enterprise,  meet  side  by 
side  with  dead  conservatism  in  church  and  school, 
the  most  liberal  ideas  with  devoted  habits  and  meek 
creed  in  home  and  family  :  aggressive  freedom,  with 
conceited  narrowness.  Nothing  can  be  praised  in  our 
wide  realm  without  an  abundance  of  danniing  excep- 
tions, and  nothing  denounced  without  a  liiieral  share 
of  cordial  praise.''     But  the  daily  marking  of  school- 


120      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICS   OF   THK    DA)'. 

work  (Iocs  not  helonii,-  to  those  tliiiiu;s  which  (losorve 
cordial  praise  through  Ijcing  (lenouiiced,  for  there  is 
not  one  iota  of  merit  in  it. 

TIII'J   OUTLOOK. 

TiiKRi':  is  ill  every  nation,  as  in  the  life  of  every 
individual,  a  time  of  i)lasticity.  During  this  time 
the  human  being  develops  his  individuality.  Certain 
(jualities  in  llim  become  fixed,  and  capable  of  being 
transmitted  to  his  children.  What  is  individuality  in 
the  person  is  tyi)e  in  the  nation.  The  English  settlers 
in  America,  cut  loose  from  the  mother  country  and 
its  culture,  dependent  upon  their  own  strength,  in- 
genuity, and  resources,  soon  drifted  away  from  old 
established  customs,  thoughts,  modes  of  life  and 
action,  adapted  themselves  to  surrounding  circum- 
stances, and  developed  a  type  peculiarly  American. 
This  type  became  so  pronounced  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  that  it  asserted  itself  in  violent  opposition 
to  England.  The  habits,  thoughts,  social  relations, 
mode  of  life,  manner  of  action,  etc.,  were  no  longer 
colonial :  they  had  become  national.  In  the  same 
way  the  mode  of  teaching  and  learning  had  developed 
certain  peculiar  traits,  had  become  typical. 

We  all  know  what  caused  the  great  abundance  of 
self-made  men:  they  were,  and  still  are,  typically 
American,  Now,  the  typical  American  hoy  gained  his 
knowledge  as  the  man  gained  his  fortune,  —  namely, 
without  assistance.  What  he  is  and  has,  he  is  and 
has  by  his  own  exertion,  attended  by  much  waste  of 


FUNDAMENTAL    ERRORS   IN    TEACHING.      127 

time  and  energy.  The  self-made  student  acquires  liis 
knowledge  from  books,  not  tiirougli  instrnetion.  Ih' 
does  not  learn  a  thing  for  the  sake  of  knowing  it,  or 
for  the;  sake  of  tiie  clisei|)line  it  affords,  l)ut  nierely 
toward  seeming  otiier  ends.  Now,  tlie  nxnles  of 
teaching  of  the  typical  American  scliool  of  tlie  etirlier 
peiiods  were  legitimate  :  they  were  the  exponents  of 
life  in  America.  That  the  typical  American  teaciier 
of  yoie  kej^t  school,  heard  recitations,  assigned  lessons, 
examined,  and  tested  daily  and  honrly,  we  can  com- 
prehend—  and  pardon.  lUit  life,  and  the  American 
people,  have  changed.  The  old  American  type  is 
fast  receding,  since  untold  millions  of  immigiants 
have  arrived.  Tlie  Union  is  a  gigantic  crucible, 
within  which  the  representatives  of  the  different  na- 
tions are  fused  to  a  homogeneous  whole.  Each 
nation  adds  some  of  its  virtues,  and,  alas!  some  of 
its  vices,  to  the  fusion. 

We  are  at  present  in  a  second  era  of  plasticity  ;  we 
see  it  from  changes  going  on  within  reach  of  our  own 
experience.  Tiiirty  years  ago  this  country  was  song- 
less.  Gen.  Grant  used  to  say:  ''I  know  only  two 
tunes;  one  is  Yankee  Doodle,  and  the  other  isn't." 
The  changes  going  on  in  our  countrv  in  indiisliial 
pursuits,  in  ait,  in  aichitecture,  in  habits  and  modes 
of  living,  are  very  perce|)tible,  but  need  not  be  enu- 
merated here.  And  we  are  changing  our  mode  of 
teaching  and  studying  also.  Wlicn  the  great  iiillux 
of  foreign  elements  ceases,  the  mixture  in  the  cruci- 
ble  will   become   clear,   and    the    future    type   of   the 


128      EDVCATIOXAL    TOPICS    OF   TIIK    DAY. 

American  school  will  luvvc  been  developed.  It  will 
not  be  European,  rest  jissiired ;  neither  will  it  be 
American,  as  that  term  is  now  understood.  It  is 
devoutly  to  be  hoi)ed  that  the  peinicious  marking 
system,  immoral  competition,  constant  testing,  and 
soulless  memorizing  of  the  printed  page,  will  not 
be  leading  features  of  the  new  American  school. 

CATCII-WORDS. 

Tnic  historian  who,  in  future  jxars,  will  write  the 
history  of  the  common  scliools  of  our  era,  will  un- 
doubtedly choose  as  a  liead-line  these  words :  The 
era  of  j)ed(tgog!cAil  catch-icords. 

Verily,  we  are  in  the  midst  of  the  time  of  educa- 
tional catch-words.  We  fail  in  strength  to  let  go  of 
mere  words,  and  to  struggle  upward  to  deeds.  We 
have  exhumed  all  the  worthy  pedagogues  of  the  past, 
have  carefully  examined  and  studied  them,  have 
lifted  education  to  the  lofty  height  of  a  science,  have 
neatly  labelled  and  systematized  every  branch  of  edu- 
cational theory  and  practice  ;  and  to  the  uninitiated 
eye  it  is  a  sight  worthy  to  make  the  heart  glad. 

But,  somehow,  there  seems  to  be  a  discrepancy 
between  our  theory  and  our  practice,  or  theory  must 
have  grown  beyond  our  heads.  We  have  striven 
toward  art,  and  have  reached  artificiality.  We  have 
sketched  the  imposing  temple  of  education  in  grand, 
bold  outhncs.  and  then  injured  it  by  suffocating 
details.  We  have  departed  from  nature,  and  opened 
the  gates,  nay,  even  the  most  sacred  compartments  of 


FUNDAMENTAL    EHRORS    IN   TEACIIINC.      129 

education  to  the  voiT  arch-foos  of  nnliiial  f;r(>\vtli, — 
to  roiitiiiism  and  met-hanism.  We  liaxc  to  thank  our- 
selves for  our  want  of  success.  Wo  should  confess 
this,  and  hunil)ly  whisper,  "  Lord,  forgive  us,  for 
we  knew  not  what  we  did!"  We  owe  a  great  deal 
of  our  present  indecision  and  hel[)lertsness  to  the 
catch-words  that  seemed  coin[)rehensible  to  every 
one  Ity  their  popularity.  And  I  dare  say  this  popu- 
larity gave  rise  to  the  fatal  belief  that  witli  having 
the  word  wc  had  the  thing. 

There  is  scarcely  a  teacher  who  has  not  his  or  her 
own  definite  opinion  as  to  the  aim  and  end  of  popular 
education  ;  there  are  but  few  who  could  not,  at  length 
and  with  the  air  of  conviction,  interpret  to  laymen 
the  principles  of  teaching  according  to  Nature's  laws, 
or  piofoundl}'  explain  the  psychological  inlluence  of 
certain  branches,  or  certain  modes  of  instruction, 
upon  the  formation  of  character ;  not  one  but  seems 
to  know  all  about  moral  and  aesthetic  culture.  There 
is  not  a  graduate  of  a  normal  school,  not  a  teacher 
of  one  year's  exix^rience,  but  could  make  use  of  such 
catch-words  as  ^  thci  princii)le  of  objective  teaching," 
"^  analytic  and  synthetic  methods,"  and  others. 

We  have  caught  the  words,  and  fougiit  with  them  ; 
and,  according  to  the  verdict  of  immortal  Goethe, 
"words  are  very  convenient  weapons."  True,  the 
actual  results  are  not  up  to  just  <'X|)ecfalions,  and 
certainly  not  in  harmony  with  the  ai)parently  profoinid 
knowledge  exhibited  in  jtrofessional  circles. 

Do    not.    fair    readei-,    foi-   a    moment    cnlfrL.-iiii    ihc 


130      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

idea  that  this  state  of  affairs  prevails  in  our  profes- 
sion only.  It  is  the  case  in  many  other  professions 
of  our  time.  That  the  catch-words  are  not  as  easily 
detected,  for  instance,  in  the  science  and  practice  of 
medicine  as  they  are  in  our  profession,  is  owing  to 
the  fact  that  medicine  is  carefully  guarded  by  a  high 
wall  of  Latin,  while  we  must  speak  plain  English  or 
German,  as  the  case  may  be. 


CllAPTErt   IV. 

SOME  PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

SOME   PRfNCIPLES   AND   METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 
(a1-TE1{    LINDNEU's    TKKATISi:.) 

/.    TEACH  IN  ACCORDASCE    WITH   .\ ATI' HE'S 
LA  \VS. 

Tins  principle  nmy  1k>  iiiti'iprctcd  in  two  ways. 
First,  viewed  ol)jeotiv(.-ly,  it  nmy  mean  :  In  teaching, 
proceed  as  Nature  does  in  all  her  work.  She  always 
awaits  the  pioper  time.  She  prepaics  lier  matter 
before  she  gives  it  shape.  ITer  woik  is  from  within 
outwards.  She  licgins  her  fonnatious  with  general 
outlines.  She  never  makes  a  lea|).  Imt  proceeds  step 
liy  step.  She  develo\)s  all  her  various  and  manifold 
forms  from  the  smallest,  iniperceptihle  beginnings. 
She  proceeds  from  the  easy  to  the  ni<»i-e  ilillieult. 
Sln>  never  does  any  thing  uselessly.  Slie  never  ai-ls 
rashly,  yet  ever  moves  onward.  Slie  never  isolates 
any  thing,  but  keeps  all  in  relation  and  connection. 
She  invigorates  herself  by  continuous  motion.  lu  a 
sinnlar  nianncr  the  teacher  should  pioci'etl.  Ilis  work 
must  begin  at  the  proper  time.  He  uuist  prepare  and 
anaum'  the  matter  of  iusliiiclion.  lie  should  not  try 
lo  plant  cognitions   with  empty    words,    hut    let    them 


184      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

oiow  from  the  seed  of  sonsc-pcrooption  fnnii  within 
out\v:\i'(ls.  OutUiies  shouUl  precede'  Uie  thorough 
tieiUise.  All  his  proeediires  ishould  be  step-l)y-stcp 
motion,  etc.  In  this  way  Comctnius  interpreted  the 
term  "■  teaching  according  to  Nature's  Uvws." 

But  a  deeper  concei>tion  of  this  princii)le  is  gained 
if  we  interpret  it  snljjectively,  to  wit :  Proceed  in 
teacliing  as  the  nature  of  the  pupil  dictates.  This  is 
the  way  Pestalozzi  and  Diesterweg  understood  this 
principle.  Not  nature  in  general,  but  the  nature  of 
the  particular  human  being  to  be  tauuht,  should  guide 
us.  In  all  our  endeavors  to  assist  the  development 
of  that  human  being,  his  own  peculiar  combination 
of  natural  gifts  dictates  what  to  do.  Pestalozzi's  own 
words  are  :  "  The  course  of  Nature  in  the  development 
of  the  human  race  is  immutable.  There  can  be  no 
different  good  ways  in  teaching :  there  is  but  one 
o;ood  one,  and  that  is  the  one  which  is  strictly  in 
accordance  with  Nature's  unchangeable  laws." 

The  teacher,  as  is  now  generally  undeistood,  even 
by  a  "  pu[)il  teacher"  in  the  backwoods,  has  the 
duty  to  assist  the  process  of  development  by  suitable 
measures,  commonly  called  teaching  ;  and  to  that  end 
he  must  know  the  natural  laws  of  mental  development, 
because  his  work  w-ill  be  fruitless  if  he  violates  them. 
These  laws  are  found  in  the  science  of  psychology  if 
we  refer  to  the  pupil  or  subject:  they  are  found  in 
the  science  of  logic  if  we  refer  to  the  matter  or  object 
of  instruction. 

The  principle,  ''  teach  according  to  Nature's  laws," 


SOME   PHINCIPLES   AND   METHODS.        135 

is  tlic  most  importiuit  in  the  science  and  art  of  tcncli- 
ing.  All  otlier  i)iin<i[)lL's  are  contained  in  it  like 
germs.  But  as  a  [)riiiciple  of  its  own  it  is  too  gen- 
eral, too  indefinite,  to  make  it  a  rule  for  the  practice 
of  teaching.  We  must  therefore  proceed  to  more 
particular  and  definite  ones. 

NoTK. — We  say  tciichhig  is  an  art,  and  therefore  in  teach- 
ing we  find  the  same  relation  which  exists  hetwecn  Art  and 
Nature  in  general.  First,  Art  imitates  Nature,  and  borrows  its 
ideal  models  from  lier;  but  it  is  also  subject  to  Nature's  un- 
alterable laws,  particularly  tliosc  laws  which  govern  the  matter 
us(>d  in  Art.  Tlius  the  art  of  painting  is  subject  to  the  laws 
of  light  and  perspective,  architecture  to  the  laws  of  gravity, 
music  to  those  of  sound;  and  it  is  literally  impossible  to  devi- 
ate from  them.  According  to  Comenius'  interpretation,  the 
teacher  is  to  be  Nature's  iinilutur;  according  to  Diesterweg, 
he  is  Nature's  nercunt. 

II.    TEACH    IN    ACCORDANCE    WITH    PSVCIIO- 
LOGICAL    LAWS. 

Teaciiino  will  be  agreeal)le  to  Nature's  laws  if  it  is 
done  psychologically,  that  is  to  say,  if  it  has  proper 
regard  to  the  laws  of  psychological  development  of 
the  human  mind.  To  this  end  it  is  necessary  to  regard 
the  whole  human  being,  and  not  merely  a  certain  faculty. 
The  instructor  must  stimulate  all  tlie  powers  of  the 
soul ;  not  merely  develo|)  the  memor}'  for  instance,  or 
the  imagination,  or  the  intellect,  alone,  i)ut  also  the 
emotions.  Another  postulate  is,  he  should  start  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  pui)il,  and  proceed  from  tiie  known 
to  the  unknown.     Similar  maxims,  equally  important, 


130      EDUCATIOS'AL    TOPICS   OF   TIIK   DAY. 

are  :  Proceed  from  the  easy  to  the  more  (lillieult,  from 
the  near  to  the  remote,  from  the  concrete  to  tlie  ab- 
stract, from  the  particuhir  to  the  general,  from  the 
example  to  the  rule,  from  the  object  to  its  syml)ol,  from 
the  idea  to  its  name.  Do  not  nse  words  that  convey 
no  idea  as  yet.  This  is  the  procedure  known  in 
methodology  as  analytic  and  genetic  procedure. 

The  starting-point  of  the  earliest  instruction  will 
always  remain  that  range  of  experience  which  the 
child  gains  before  it  enters  school ;  the  starting-point 
in  every  higher  grade  is  on  that  level  to  which  the 
pupil  has  been  raised  in  the  preceding  grade.  This 
secures  continuity  of  instruction,  one  of  the  requisites 
of  success. 

If  the  teacher  were  to  disregard  the  standpoint  of 
the  pupil  in  any  grade  of  the  school  curriculum,  he 
would  be  in  danger  of  either  offering  him  knowledge 
as  new  which  he  has  mastered  before,  or  presupposing 
unknown  things  as  learned,  digested,  and  assimilated. 
In  the  former  case  the  teacher  would  become  tedious  ;. 
in  the  latter,  incomprehensible.  To  give  the  argument 
concerning  psxchological  laws  in  a  nutshell,  we  will 
say,  the  instruction  should  be  in  strict  accordance  with 
the  actual  stage  of  dcvelo[)ment  of  the  learner,  at 
every  step  and  at  all  times. 

NoTK  1.  —  Of  the  particular  rules  given  for  psycliological 
procedure,  only  the  first,  namely,  "from  the  known  to  the 
unknown,"  is  applicable  In  every  case.  The  recent  crusade  in 
Xew  England  against  this  maxim  is  too  trifling  to  be  considered. 
The  other  maxims  are  subject  to  limitations.     Thus,  it  may 


soMK  I'lU.ycn'i.Ks  a.xd  mf/iiiods.      V?,' 

happen,  that  an  easier  part  of  a  braneh  of  study  may  follow  a 
more  difficult  one;  for  instanee,  the  chapter  in  geometry  which 
treats  of  circles  follows  the  Pythaj^orcan  problem.  In  many 
sciences  the  elementary  ideas  and  fundamental  deliniiions  at  tlie 
beginning  of  the  study  are  the  most  ditlicult.  While  the  rule 
says,  "  Procec.'d  from  the  near  to  the  remote,"  it  is  very  fre- 
quently the  fact  that  the  more  remote,  in  geography  for  instance, 
is  treated  before  objects  neanT  home.  The  sun,  which  is  a 
very  remote  object,  is  spoken  of  and  viewed  before  Australia  is 
treated ;  and  in  history,  knowledge  of  the  Orient  is  frequently 
offered  before  home  history  is  treated.  But  no  man  of  common 
sense  will  on  that  account  object  to  the  rule  as  it  stamls. 

NoTK  2. — The  oft-quoted  maxin),  "from  the  simple  to 
the  complex,"  cannot  be  supported,  because  that  which  is 
gained  by  experience  through  the  senses  is  not  always  simple. 
The  more  difficult  general  ideas  are  simpler  than  the  particular 
ones  gained  by  observation. 

///.    TEACH    OBJECTIVELY;    APPEAL    TO    THE 
SENSES. 

Tfie  maxima  (.leiivod  from  tlie  second  princ'ii)le,  :ill 
more  or  less  [)erem[)torily  demand  this:  *-'lV'aeh  ol)- 
jectivel}'."  Sensations  and  percepts  are  the  l)uilding- 
material  of  concepts,  cognitions,  and  ideas.  The  young 
child's  range  of  exi)crience,  its  mental  lionzon,  is  liter- 
ally (illed  with  percepts,  few  of  which  have  been  formed 
into  concepts.  The  yoiU)g  child's  mind  is  or.ly  capahle 
of  sensation,  perception,  and  conception.  That  which 
is  perceiva1)le  hy  the  senses  is  that  which  is  nearest, 
easiest,  simi)lest.  Hence  the  principle,  '•Teach  ohjec- 
tively,"  is  correct  at  least  for  elementaiy  instruction. 

Hut   it    holds  good   :d>o    for   cvcrv   otiici    sti'p  of   in- 


138      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

struction  :  for  ideas  without  percepts  are  empty  and 
meaningless ;  they  arc  garments  without  substance. 
Wlie never  new  terms  come  up  in  instruction,  the  teacher 
should  at  once  see  to  it  that  they  are  illustrated  aptly, 
so  that  they  are  substantiated,  so  to  speak,  and  organ- 
ically linked  with  previous  cognitions. 

This  was  doubted  by  a  young  teacher,  one  da}',  in 
my  presence  ;  and  I  led  the  doubter  ad  absnrduyn  by 
asking  him  whether  he  thought  pumpernickel  should  be 
recommended  in  a  case  of  gout?  A  blank  stare  was 
the  answer,  until  finally  his  question,  "  What  is  pum- 
pernickel?" broke  the  spell  and  his  doubt.  Such 
words  as  "arsenal,"  "tributary,"  "elevation,"  "con- 
stellation," and  other  words  of  Latin  and  Greek  origin, 
do  not  convey  a  meaning  unless  an  appeal  to  the  senses 
or  to  ideas  previously  acquired  has  been  made.  The 
ditliculty  and  want  of  success  in  teaching  often  results 
from  the  fact  that  the  teacher  is  too  abstract,  that 
words  are  used  for  which  the  child  cannot  find  objects 
of  comparison  or  contrast  in  his  "  picture-book  of 
experience,"  his  memory-. 

The  objective  teacher  illustrates  all  new  terms  as  far 
as  possible,  either  by  showing  the  objects  in  natura^  or 
by  means  of  models,  pictures,  drawings,  sketches,  dia- 
grams, so  that  the  terms  may  leave  a  residue  of  sense- 
perception  in  the  memory.  All  the  impressions  which 
we  gain  from  an  object  by  means  of  the  five  senses 
form  an  idea. 

Thus,  for  instance,  we  have  no  clear  idea  of  an  apple 
unless  we  have  perceived  it  through  all  the  five  senses. 


SOME  rnryciPLEs  axd  metikws.      130 

"We  see  its  color  and  form  ;  fed  wlicthcr  it  is  li:uil  or 
soft,  smooth  or  rough  ;  we  taste  \i,  and  thus  tiud  whetlier 
it  is  sour  or  sweet;  we  small  it.  and  distinguish,  even 
when  blindfolded,  from  the  smell  of  a  pear  or  plum. 
We  even  recognize  it  by  the  sense  of  hearing :  an  apple 
that  rolls  on  the  floor  is  recognized  even  by  a  blind 
person. 

To  objective  teaching  belongs  also  the  example  of 
the  teacher,  the  showing  how  to  work  whenever  ac- 
complishments, sucii  as  penmanship,  drawing,  singing, 
etc.,  are  the  subject  of  a  lesson.  The  teacher's  copy 
on  the  board,  his  example  in  reading,  drawing,  nar- 
rating, translating,  etc.,  all  these  may  be  considered  as 
parts  of  objective  teaching.  Pestalozzi  formulates  the 
principle  of  objective  teaching  as  follows:  AhscIhih- 
unrj  (pcrcei)tion)  is  the  alisolute  foundation  of  all  cog- 
nitions ;  that  is  to  say,  all  cognitions  are  derived  from 
perce[)li'jiis,  and  can  be  traced  back  to  them. 

IV.     TEACH  IXTELLlfUni.Y. 

Tkacii  inteHigil)ly,  so  that  you  are  easily  understood. 
This  principle  demands  that  the  acquisition  and  reten- 
tion of  the  matter  be  made  easy  to  the  pupil.  The 
teacher  will  be  the  more  successful,  the  easier  the  pui)il 
finds  the  act  of  learning. 

Though  all  principli's  of  teaching  should  aim  at  this, 
a  few  maxims  may  l)e  gathered  iindei-  this  head. 

1.  Teach  the  elements  thoroughly,  for  in  X\\vm  most 
of  the  difliculties  are  heaped  up.  Ki'mcmbt-r,  all 
beginnings  are  didieult. 


140      KhrCATIOXAL    TOf'K'S    OF   TIIK    DAY. 

2.  Proceed  slowly  ;  teach  little,  hut  he  precise  and 
exacting  in  your  demands.  Do  not  liurry  unduly, 
and  never  foi-get  to  lead  the  child  hack  to  the  elements 
of  knowledge,  «o  that  all  cognitions  he  organically  con- 
nected with  previously  acquired  knowledge.  Niemeyer 
says  :  "  Appear  to  lose  time  in  order  to  gain  it ;  do  not 

■^     proceed  to  the  next  step  unless  you  are  confident  that 
I     the  former  has  been  reached." 

3.  Ideas  should  be  illustrated  by  things  and  allu- 
sions to  things  lying  within  the  mental  horizon  of  the 
children.  Comenius  says,  "A  teacher  is  cruel  who 
demands  mental  work  of  his  pui)ils  without  previous 
explanation  or  drill  resulting  in  the  ability  to  do  said 
work." 

4.  Keep  within  bounds  m  teaching.  This  is  to  be 
understood  to  mean,  teach  as  little  as  possible  for 
future  oblivion.  There  are  teachers  who  honestly 
stiive  to  teach  all  they  know.  Beginners  fall  into 
this  error  quite  frequently.  Goethe  says,  ''  In  der 
Beschrdnkuiig  zeigt  sich  der  Jfeister."  (A  master 
proves  himself  such  under  restraint.) 

5.  Separate  the  essentials  from  the  non-essentials. 
Point  at  the  former,  and  in  reviewing  lay  stress  upon 
them  only. 

G.  Arrange  systematically  —  that  is,  logically  and 
methodically  —  the  matter  of  instruction  in  parts  and 
steps,  so  that  the  pupil  can  proceed  l)y  degrees  without 
making  undue  leaps  or  being  kept  back. 

7.  Proceed  from  the  object  to  its  symbol,  fiom  the 
idea  to  the  word  ;    never    vice   versa.     Do    not  speak 


SOME-   rill  SCI  PLES   AM)    METHODS.        141 

of  tliiiius  of  uliicli  tin-  iiii[)il.s  have  no  conception  as 
yet.  \'ain2lori(Mis  talk  in  school  is  a  ciiiiie.  The 
hln^■lla<J,e  of  the  teacluT  should  l)e  simple,  clear,  com- 
pieiiensilile. 

NoTi:  1.  —  Likoall  tlio  oilier  priiifiplcs,  the  forfjzoiiii;  must  be 
accepted  and  followed  with  the  limitations  caused  by  the  rela- 
tion of  these  principles  to  each  other.  Makini;  learning  easy 
should  not  lie  interpreted  to  mean  to  cripple  the  enthusiasm  or 
self -activity  of  the  pupil.     This  would  violate  principle  No.  7. 

NoTi;  2.  —  The  maxim,  "Make  things  comprehensible," 
should  not  lead  us  to  exclude  every  thing  the  explanation  of 
which  is  beyond  a  possibility.  Many  facts  must  be  taken  upon 
trust  in  childhood,  as  well  as  in  later  years.  Even  science  can- 
not explain  all  kiiown  phenomena,  and  sometimes  loses  itself 
in  useless  speculations.  All  we  can  do  is  to  classify  these  facts, 
and  wait  patiently,  till  by  means  of  comparison  and  contrast 
a  general  law  may  be  deduced,  or  cause  and  effect  be  discovered. 
Children  often  learn  facts  which  remain  totally  uneomprehended 
by  them,  and  we  believe  they  are  enriching  their  mind,  while 
they  only  overburden  their  memory.  Not  much  damage  is  done 
thereby,  except  that  mental  dyspepsia  is  caused  by  thus  con- 
stantly storing  uji  facts  wliich  are  not  linked  witli  previous 
cognitions;  while  healthy  growth  is  caused  when  the  facts  are 
digested  and  assimilated,  that  is,  recognized  in  their  intimate 
relation  to  others.  The  ac(|iiisition  of  uneomprehended  facts  is 
not  necessarily  vicious  in  its  effects,  so  long  as  these  facts  are 
not  in  contradiction  to  cognitions  gained  previously.  The  lui- 
comprchended  fact  may  be  true,  though  we  do  not  see  its  causes 
and  relations.  For  instance,  we  hace  not  yet  learned  or  com- 
prehended how  the  grass  grows,  but  there  is  no  contradiction 
between  the  facts  and  tbc  known  laws  of  nature. 


142      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 
METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

DKKIMTIONS. 

]Mr.Tiior>,  in  <2:onoral,  is  the  inodo  of  procediiie  which 
follows  certain  rules  ai)plie(l  with  the  intention  of  gain- 
ing a,  certain  end  ;  or,  "  method  is  the  wa^-  of  reaching 
a  given  end  by  a  series  of  acts  which  tend  to  secure 
it."  Ever}'  practical  performance  may  be  conducted 
either  irregularly,  that  is,  arbitrarily  and  accidentally' ; 
or  regularly,  that  is,  methodically.  In  this  sense  we 
speak  of  a  method  of  swimming,  riding,  painting,  eat- 
ing, etc. 

Method  of  teaching  is  the  mode  of  procedure  in 
teaching  which  follows  given  rules.  It  is  the  way 
upon  which  the  teacher  leads  his  pupils  in  order  to 
make  them  reach  the  ultimate  aim  of  instruction.  It 
is  the  answer  to  the  question,  "•  How  should  the  matter 
of  instruction  be  arranged  and  treated,  in  order  to  be 
comprehended,  digested,  and  assimilated  easily  and 
willingly  by  the  pu|)il?" 

The  answer  to  this  question  must  of  necessity  differ 
as  we  refer  to  the  (1)  course,  (2)  form,  (3)  manner, 
or  (4)  moans  of  teaching. 

The  course  of  teaching,  frequently  called  method,  is 
so  far  objective  as  it  disregards  the  peculiar  manner 
of  the  teacher,  and  may  be  applied  to  all  teaching, 
since  it  has  reference  only  to  knowledge  and  accom- 
l)lishment,  that  is,  the  matter  to  l>e  taught,  not  to 
the  varying  conilitious  c^l"  the  person  to  be  taught.     The 


SOME   PUINCII'LES   AND   METHODS.        143 

course  of  toacliiuii.  like  the  prescribed  course  of  study, 
is  soulless  until  interpreted  and  applied  by  a  teacher 
who,  by  his  form  and  mode  of  teaching,  can  animate  it. 

The  form  of  tedcliiitg  has  reference  to  the  outer 
procedure;  that  is,  the  mode  of  con<hict  and  coimnuni- 
cation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  toward  tlie  jxipd. 
For  this  pait  of  method,  also,  ver^'  well-delined  rules 
can  be  and  are  applied. 

The  maimer  of  teachinr/,  on  the  other  hand,  is  purely 
subjective,  since  it  depends  upon  the  leaching  i)erson, 
and  embraces  the  individual  spirit  of  the  teacher,  his 
own  peculiar  manner,  his  own  tone.  Though  this 
manner,  strictly  speaking,  must  var}'  with  different 
individuals,  there  are  still  certain  particulars  which 
all  have  in  common  ;  and  only  so  far  as  tliey  are  com- 
mon to  all  or  many,  are  they  entitled  to  consideration 
in  the  following  chapters. 

NoTK.  —  It  is  with  roference  to  this  part  of  niothoilology  that 
the  greatest  mistakes  are  made.  Teachers  often  advocate  a 
trick,  a  device,  a  peculiar  iiianncrisni,  as  a  new  method.  Tliey 
simply  confound  manner  with  method  of  teaching. 

The  vieans  of  teachhuj.  lastly,  ine  objects  of  nature, 
artistic  representations,  books,  eiiarts,  api)aratus,  etc., 
used  to  assist  the  teacher  in  teaching,  the  pupil  in 
learning.  They  are  in  intimate  relation  to  the  method 
puisued,  be  that  inner  or  outer  method  of  procedure  ; 
objective  or  subjective  method;  course,  form,  and 
manner  of  teaching. 


144      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICS   OF  THE    DAY. 


DIDACTIC,    HEURISTIC,    AND    SYSTEM ATIC    MI/niODS. 

The  didactic  method  is  Unit  procedure  in  wiiich 
knowledge  is  coinniiuiicated.  This  distinguishes  it  not 
only  from  the  heuristic  method,  which  aims  at  the  self- 
active  acquirement  or  finding  of  knowledge,  but  also 
from  that  procedure  known  as  scientific  presentation 
of  knowledge  ;  that  is,  the  systematic  method. 

The  heuristic  method  reflects  the  historic  way  hy 
which  the  human  mind  has  reached  its  present  status 
of  development.  Since  this  way  is  by  no  means  a 
straight  line,  but  exhibits  numerous  errors  and  wind- 
ings from  which  the  short-lived  individual  must  be 
saved,  the  method,  therefore,  deviates  frequently  from 
its  historic  model.  It  is  the  object  of  the  teacher  to 
lead  the  individual  upon  the  shortest  road,  in  a  certain 
limited  number  of  v'cars,  to  a  point  which  the  human 
race  has  reached  b}'  a  roundabout  wav  during  the  long 
course  of  many  centuries. 

To  this  shortest  road  the  systematic  method  seems 
to  commend  itself  most,  because  it  arranges  all  cogni- 
tions according  to  their  inner,  that  is,  logical,  relation. 
It  is  that  presentation  of  knowledge  of  which  the 
mathematics  offer  brilliant  exam[)les  or  models.  Dut 
this  strictly  systematic  presentalion,  with  all  its  defini- 
tions, divisions,  classifications,  and  conclusions,  is  only 
suited  for  riper  minds,  for  the  highest  or  academic 
grades  of  school  instruction,  and  not  applicable  in  the 
lower  grades,  l)ecause  it  totally  disregards  of  necessity 
the  learner's  individuality. 


SOME    PUINCIPLEH   AND    METHODS.        145 

The  mi'tliod  of  tuacliiiii!:,  Uh-ii.  — tliat  is,  Uk'  way  in 
wliicli  the  mind  is  to  he  apitioaciu'il.  and  tlic  manner 
in  which  the  matter  of  instrnction  is  to  l)e  served,  — 
imist  be  guided  by  two  considerations:  first,  the  con- 
sideration for  the  snl)jeet  of  instruction,  the  \)i\[nl ; 
and  this  is  the  psychological  side  of  instruction,  tiie 
aim  of  which  is  to  make  the  pupil  susceptible  to  the 
matter  of  instruction  ;  second,  Ity  the  cousideration 
for  the  objects  of  instruction,  —  that  is,  the  nature  of 
the  matter,  —  and  this  is  the  logical  side  of  instrnction, 
which  aims  at  [)ieparing  the  matter  ;  that  is,  making  it 
palatable  av.d  digestive  for  the  mental  organs  of  the 
pupil. 

In  all  elementary  teaching  the  first  consideration  is 
weightier  than  the  second,  although  the  latter  should 
not  l)e  disregarded.  In  academic  instruction  the  second 
consideration  is  the  more  important. 

Note. — A  teaohor  of  yomig  pupils  wlio  disregards  the 
psychological  standpoint  of  llie  childrtni,  and  leoturos  over 
tlicir  heads,  as  it  were,  is  an  abomination.  That  such 
"  teachers  "  are  not  rare,  can  be  seen  from  the  often-repeated 
pln-ase,  '"  Now,  how  often  (Hd  I  tell  you  tliat,  and  yet  you  do 
not  know  it!" 

TIIK    KSSKXCK    OF    Ml/rilOl). 

Since  the  teacher  cannot,  for  ()l)vious  reasons,  teach 
at  once  all  the  course  of  study  prescribes,  he  is  obliged 
to  divide  the  matter,  and  proceed  step  by  step.  The 
disposition  of  llie  matti'i'  of  instinct  ion  into  a  series  of 
lessons,  according  to  the  time  prescribed,  is  the  course. 


14G      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE   DAV. 

Kvciv  lesson  should  foi'in  a  iiK'tlio<lic:il  unit,  liaving 
a  i)r('viously  (Ictciiniiiod  ol)jcct  in  \\v\v.  In  the  pur- 
suit of  this  object,  live  stages  uinst  be  distinguished  :  — 

I.  The  preparation ;  that  is,  a  repetition  of  what  is 
known  by  the  pu[)ils  of  the  matter  under  consideration. 

II.  The  presentation  of  the  new;  that  is,  that  with 
which  the  pui)ils  are  to  be  made  familiar.  This  ma}' 
be  either  given,  or  found  by  self-active  investigation. 

III.  Connection  of  the  new  with  cognitions  [)re- 
viouslj'  acquired,  so  that,  for  the  puipose  of  appercep- 
tion, repetition  and  practice  become  necessary. 

IV.  Condensation  of  general  results  obtained  from 
examples  and  illustrations,  and  their  formulation  into 
good  language  or  set  rules,  as  the  case  may  be. 

V.  Application  upon  examples  and  cases  of  prac- 
tical life,  so  that  what  is  learned  may  become  the 
undisputed  property  of  the  learner,  over  which  he  has 
absolute  command  and  control,  at  any  time,  and  under 
all  circumstances. 

The  course  is  by  no  means  an  indifferent  thing,  for 
much  depends  upon  the  order  in  which  knowledge  is 
presented  to  the  learner,  so  that  its  component  parts  are 
thoroughly  comprehended.  The  course,  indeed,  is  so 
frequently  considered  as  the  method,  that  it  leads  many 
to  an  erroneous  concei)tion  of  the  term  '••method,"  as 
w^e  shall  see  farther  on. 

In  the  comprehension  of  the  child,  the  matter  of 
instruction  must  be  so  arranged  that  every  following 
new  cognition  can  be  linked  to  previous  cognitions. 
No  fact  must  stand  isolated  ;   but  must  form,  in  con- 


.so.v/';  riiixcirLics  a.xd  mktiiods.      1 17 

lu'ctioii  with  iiKiiiy  others,  an  or<2;anic  unit.  That  this 
(!('|)L'n(ls  \\\)(m  the!  disposition  ol'  tlic  matter,  is  eh'aily 
seen. 

None  1.  —  A  confused  mass  of  knowledge  offered,  is  the. 
diametrieal  opposite  of  method.  Life  teaclies  in  that  way,  and 
forms  a  chaos  of  cognitions  and  experiences.  Wiien  the  pupil 
comes  to  school,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  disentangle  this 
ratking  of  cognitions,  and  establish  order  in  the  mind.  Some 
people,  notably  auto-didactic  scholars,  never  succeed  in  estab- 
lislung  order  in  their  mimls  ;  their  ideas  are  never  clear.  The 
greatest  art  in  teaching  consists  in  descending  to  the  standpoint 
of  the  child;  to  become  a  child  among  children,  and  uncon- 
sciously lift  them  to  a  higher  level.  He  who  can  practise  this 
great  art  needs  not  method.  He  is  method  personified;  that  is, 
proceeds  methodically  without  being  aware  of  it,  and  without 
making  his  pupils  feel  it. 

Note  2. — The  course  of  teaching  referred  to  in  this  chap- 
ter must  not  be  confounded  with  the  course  of  study  as  pre- 
scribed by  school  authorities.  It  is  the  guide  of  the  teacher's 
own  action  from  step  to  step. 

ANALYSIS    AM)    SVNTIIESIS. 

The  method,  or  the  road  \\\)o\\  whicli  toaelicr  and 
pnitils  travel,  is  conditioned  both  by  the  startinii;- 
point  and  by  the  end  in  view.  Tlie  starting-point  in 
teaching  is  genei'ally  within  the  circle  of  experience 
and  horizon  of  knowledge  of  the  pupils.  Tiie  teaciier 
must  begin  here,  lest  liis  teaching  be  fruitless  and  use- 
less. He  cannot  always  know  the  extent  of  this  cirele, 
and,  therefore,  is  obliged  to  explore  it  to  know  just 
how  higli  or  how  low  the  pupil  stands. 

Whatever  the  teacher  linds  within  this  circle  of  exi)e- 


148      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'IdS   OF  THE    DAY. 

ricnce  will  cidici-  :i|)i)('jir  as  a  whole.,  which  may  ho 
iiiiulyzed  into  its  eomi)onent  parts  ;  or  as  u  miinber  of 
parts,  vvliicli  will  have  to  l)e  linked  organically  to  form 
a  whole.  The  method  may,  therefore,  take  the  form  of 
dissection  or  dismemberment  (analysis) ,  or  it  may  take 
the  form  of  com])ination  or  joining  (sijtithesis) ,  of  the 
matter.  In  the  former  case  we  call  the  method  analytic  ; 
in  the  latter,  synthetic. 

Now,  the  whole  spoken  of  may  be  '  concrete  or 
abstract ;  that  is,  it  may  be  a  real  thing,  an  ol)ject 
existing  in  time  and  space,  or  a  mere  notion,  an  idea, 
or,  to  speak  more  accnrately,  the  contents  of  an  idea. 
According  to  this,  analysis,  as  well  as  synthesis,  may 
be  twofold :  namely,  real,  when  it  refers  to  the  object 
itself ;  or  ideal,  that  is,  logical,  when  it  refers  to  a 
conception  or  idea. 

Analysis  of  the  object  will  fnrnish  component  parts 
which  lie  side  by  side  when  dismembered  ;  analysis  of 
the  idea  brings  ont  the  characteristics  within  each 
other,  and  which,  with  regard  to  the  original  idea,  are 
Iiigher  or  lower  concepts.  Object-analysis  is  a  real 
l)artition  or  dismemberment  of  an  object,  while  thought- 
analysis  is  a  logical  abstraction. 

Object-analysis  dissects  :  a  tree,  for  instance,  into 
roots,  trunk,  branches,  twigs,  leaves,  and  fruit;  a 
horse,  into  head,  neck,  trunk,  and  extremities  ;  a  year, 
into  seasons,  months,  etc.  ;  a  product,  into  its  factors  ; 
a  sentence,  into  its  elements  ;  a  word,  into  syllables  and 
sounds. 

Object-synthesis  combmes  the  parts  of  an  object  in 


SOME  PRINCIPLES  AND   METHODS.        140 

onk'r  to  i)rodncc  it  in  its  orii^iiuil  form :  thus,  the 
different  i)rovinces  or  states,  to  form  ti  union  or  empire  ; 
the  prismatic  colors,  to  form  the  rainbow  ;  continuous 
adding  of  one,  to  make  anj'  number ;  single  acts,  to 
form  a  period  in  history  ;  plants  showing  similarity 
and  relationship,  to  form  families  and  classes  in 
botany. 

Object-analysis  finds  application  everywhere,  where 
any  real  object  within  the  child's  circle  of  vision  and 
experience  is  to  be  explained  by  partition  into  its 
component  parts.  He  who  thinks  of  the  whole,  thinks 
also  of  the  i)arts  ;  but  the  latter  often  remain  obscure, 
and  can  only  be  understood  bj'  the  analytic  method. 

Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  branch  of  instruction 
commonly  called  oljject-lessons,  the  child  has  a  great 
multiplicity  of  concepts  grown  out  of  a  still  greater 
number  of  pcrcci)ts,  but  they  are  mostly  all  obscure. 
Many  a  child  has  seen  horses,  and  has  no  clear  idea  of 
a  horse's  hoofs  and  joints.  This  partition  and  distinc- 
tion is  caused  by  the  analytic  method. 

In  the  same  manner,  the  well-known  home  may  Ije 
made  the  object  of  object-analysis  ;  certain  projecting 
points,  hills,  rivers,  bridges,  settlements,  cities,  etc., 
may  be  singled  out,  and  viewed  according  to  their 
relative  position  and  size.  On  the  other  hand,  certain 
\)arts  may  l)e  made  starting  points,  and  the  whole  tiie 
end  in  view.  This  is  (he  case  when  the  parts  are 
that  which  is  given  by  experience,  and  the  whole  that 
which  is  to  be  gained.  This  naturally  calls  for  object- 
svntiiesis. 


150      KDUVAriONAL    TOPICS   OF   TIIK    DAY. 

The  attempt  to  extend  geograjiliiejil  knowledge 
beyond  the  horizon  of  the  home  ealls  for  ol>jeet-syn- 
thcsis.  This  necessitates  the  nse  of  imagination,  in 
order  to  form  the  parts  to  something  like  a  complete 
thing.  Complete  maps  need  to  be  analyzed  ;  outline 
maps  reqnire  synthesis.  A  ver}-  i)opular  method  of  his- 
torical instruction  is  that  of  object-synthesis,  namely, 
a  linking  of  facts  which  follow  ehronologicall}'. 

Reading  and  arithmetic  were  originally  taught  by 
means  of  synthesis  exclusively  (by  adding  sounds  to 
make  words,  and  adding  numbers  to  oljtain  others). 
In  reading,  the  so-called  phonic,  or  sounding-method, 
proceeds  synthetically  ;  the  word-method,  analytically. 
The  best  mode  in  this  case  will  always  be  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two ;  that  is,  to  analyze  woids  to  obtain  the 
material  with  which  new  words  are  made.  The  first 
year's  work  in  arithmetic  also  should  be  analytic,  as 
well  as  synthetic.  Every  new  number  should  be 
obtained  by  synthesis,  and  then  analyzed  into  its 
component  parts  and  thus  measured.  (See  Grul>e's 
procedure.) 

And  thus  I  might  go  thi'ough  the  whole  range  of 
studies  to  show  that  the  teacher  can  apply  analysis 
and  synthesis  equally  well.  It  will  never  do  to  exclude 
one,  or  even  uudul}'  favor  the  other. 


SUMMAliV   OF  METHODS   OF   TFACIIIXG. 


IXXEU    PliOCEDl'liK,    Oil    THE    MkTIIOI)     OF    TEACIIINfi 
WITH    REFEnENCE   Tl> 

I. -THE    PUPILS. 


Tlie  int'tliod  iniiy  be 

Itof/mativ, 

or  comrnuniciUiti^, 

whoifby  is  or  are  taimht 


Or  it  may  bo 
Genetic, 

that  is,  devcloi>ing, 
and  then  it  is  either  the 


only , — " — >  Ilia  in 
priiicip/es.  poiiiln.  fnigments. 

■a      =   =  ^ 


Jiletnetttnry 

genetic 


Sorrntic' 
method. 


"   =    ?= 


•c    -    -    o 


~     V         •<     V     ~    Z 


'  The  Sooralic  method  is 
applied  in  the  inner  as  well 
as  in  the  outer  procedure. 
See  below. 


WITH    REFERENCE    TO 

THE    MATTER    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

The  method  may  proceed  from 


the  whole, 

Anali/tir   Metho<l, 

that  is,  from 


the  object, 
and   then   it  is 

lealanalytic, 
Ejrpltiiiiitor!/ 

procedure. 


the  idea; 

and   then   it   is 

ideal-analytic, 

lixtiirtire 

procedure, 


the  parts, 
SipUhifif    MeiliotI, 
that  is,  from  parts  of 

the  object,     or        the  iilea; 


and   then  it  is 

real  synthetic, 

I'vnijrcssii'e 

l)ioeednre. 


and   then   it  is 

ideal-synthetic, 

Ih-tlnrtire 

procedure. 


OCTEI:    PfiOCEDUKK,   OR    THE    MANNER    OF    TeACIIIXO; 
that  is,  the  mode  of  intercourse.     It  may  be 


UTonoloffir, 

when  one  speaks,  and  others  listen. 

Lecture. 


1 


fi 


liialoffir,^ 

when  teacher  and  pupils  converse 
with  little  resiraiiit. 


Socratic. 


Parliamentary. 


'  Cnleoheilc  and  dialogic 
modes  readily  blend. 


f'flterlirtlr.2 
when  one  asks,  and  others  answer. 


repetitory  (jnestiuns,  e.\aniinalory  ijnestions, 


developing  rpiestions. 
(Ilcnrislie.) 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  AET   OF   QUESTIONING,   AND   PRACTICE   OF 
TEACHING. 


153 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   AET   OF   QUESTIONING,   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING. 
HINTS   TO  BEGINNERS. 

Let  me  draw  from  m}'  experience  in  the  scliool- 
room,  and  offer  young  teachers,  a  few  hints  regarding 
the  art  of  (njestioning,  as  it  shoiihl  l)e  appHed  in  the 
primary  school,  Avhere  above  knowledge  and  its  gar- 
ment, above  skill  in  making  use  of  it,  should  be  con- 
sidered the  growth  and  development  of  the  child's 
inborn  powers.  Indeed,  the  jirimary  school  has 
performed  its  duty,  when  it  has  taught  its  pupils  to 
teach  themselves. 

First,  Then,  let  me  say,  it  is  well  to  let  individual 
pupils  answer  your  questions,  for  only  thus  it  is 
possible  to  learn  the  faults  and  failings  in  the  knowl- 
edge and  language  of  your  pupils.  Direct  your 
(piestious  to  the  class,  but  call  upon  individual  pupils 
to  give  the  answi'rs.  If  an  answer  proves  to  be  per- 
fect, call  upon  the  class  to  repeat  it  in  chorus.  Thus 
you  will  be  aiding  the  whole  class  in  acquiring  cor- 
rect knowledge,  clothed  in  fitting  garment.  Much  is 
sinned  by  having  the  whole  class  answer  ad  libit  urn. 
This  resembles  a  bushel  of  chaff  containing  a  few 
grains. 

155 


156      KDUCATTONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

Second,  As  a  most  excellent  exercise,  ma}'  be 
regarded  the  writing  of  a  few  perfect  answers  to 
some  leading  questions,  eitlier  by  the  teacher  or  by 
the  pupils.  Thus  another  means  is  used  for  fixing 
in  the  mind  that  which  has  been  developed  in  the 
preceding  lesson.  We  are  apt  to  forget  that  it  is  not 
so  much  knowledge,  as  it  is  ability  and  power,  toward 
which  we  should  aim.  If  this  writing  of  a  few  answers 
is  begun  early,  it  may  lead  to  accustom  the  children  to 
express  their  thoughts  in  writing  more  readily  than  is 
done  commonly. 

Third,  This,  however,  is  only  possible  if  the  teacher 
insists  upon  it,  that  the  pupil's  answer  should  in  every 
case  consist  of  *a  complete  sentence,  which  embraces 
the  teacher's  question.  I  know  full  well  that  this  has 
been  termed  pedantic ;  but  no  one  thus  far  has  suc- 
ceeded in  pro[)Osing  any  thing  better  for  the  purpose 
of  facilitating  clearness  of  expression,  and  exercise  in 
correct  speech.  Many  teachers  hold,  that  insisting 
upon  the  pupil's  answer  being  a  complete  sentence 
is  a  waste  of  time.  It  is  true,  in  the  beginning  it 
claims  much  valuable  time,  like  every  other  thing 
which  is  taught  thoroughly  ;  but  after  some  weeks  it 
will  be  found  a  downright  saving  of  time,  because 
time  in  school  is  saved  easiest  where  the  answers 
are  the  garment  of  the  most  thorough  and  complete 
thoughts.  Fragmentary  answers  will  not  allow  the 
class  to  follow  easily,  and  the  language  of  the  pupils 
will  not  be  facilitated.  I  believe  a  few  weeks  will 
accustom  a  class  to  answer  in  complete  sentences. 


THE    Airr   OF  (.n'KSTIONJNG.  l.",7 

Fourth^  Of  course  lie  who  has  no  tact  in  qiirstiitii- 
iiiir,  or  who  asks  questions  tiiat  an-  faulty  in  con- 
struction or  poorly  emphasized,  will  grt  \nniv  and 
incomplete  answers.  The  teacher's  questions  in  the 
primary  school  must  possess  three  absolutely  necessary 
fjnalities.  They  must  be  correctly  formed,  must  be 
precise,  and  must  be  true  questions. 

What  question  is  correctly  formed?  Ever}'  (pies- 
tion  which  has  the  interrogative  word  at  the  beginning, 
that  is  to  say,  which  begins  with  '•how,"  "•  where," 
''  when,"  "  who,"  "  what,"  ''  why,"  or  another  inter- 
rogative pronoun.  Ask,  '■'- Where  does  the  squirrel 
live?"  and  not,  "The  squirrel  lives  where?"  Such 
questions  are  as  little  instructive  as  is.  the  practice  of 
beginning  a  sentence,  and  having  it  fuiishcd  by  the 
})upil ;  as,  for  instance,  ''The  swallow  builds  its  nest 
near"  —  "the  window."  There  is,  however,  little 
danger  of  faulty  construction  in  English  :  much  more 
so  in  other  languages,  where  much  dc'i)ends  upon 
correct  construction. 

"What  is  a  precise  question  ?  A  question  is  precise 
if  it  admits  of  but  one  answer,  as  a  good  riddle  will 
have  only  one  correct  solution. 

What  is  a  true  question?  Every  question  of  correct 
construction,  which  is  not  only  precise  but  well  em- 
phasized. He  who  asks,  wishes  to  learn  something 
that  he  does  not  know  as  yet.  In  school,  therefore, 
the  pui)ils  ought,  by  rights,  ask,  and  the  teaclu-r 
answer.  IJut  since  this  is  impossible,  for  olivious 
reasons,    the    teacher    exchanges    position    with     the 


158      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

l)iipils,  and  artilicially  places  himself  in  the  position 
of  hiin  who  does  not  know  what  is  asked  for.  The 
less  the  teacher  betrays  that  he  knows  what  he  asks, 
the  more  will  his  question  be  a  real,  genuine  question, 
and  the  more  readily  will  the'  pupil  answer.  Now, 
since  this  make-believe  is  only  possible  through  cor- 
rect emphasis,  it  is  obvious  that  we  should  lay  much 
stress  upon  this  particular  quality  of  a  good  question. 
I  have  met  with  teachers  who  are  perfect  masters  in 
the  art  of  questioning,  and  it  is  not  astonishing  at  all 
to  hear  the  brilliant  answers  of  their  pupils.  No 
better  proof  of  a  teacher's  mastership  in  this  art  was 
ever  given,  than  by  that  conceited  little  boy,  who 
came  home  from  school  and  said,  '•  I  ain't  a-going 
to  that  school  any  more."  —  "Why?"  asked  his 
mother.  "  'Cause  our  teacher  don't  know  tiny  thing. 
She  asks  us  all  the  time.  We  must  tell  her  every 
thing.  To-day  she  even  wanted  to  know  what  I  had 
my  boots  on  for  !  ' ' 

There  is  one  more  requirement  of  a  true  question  : 
namely,  it  must  never  be  uttered  in  a  tone,  and  accom- 
panied by  a  mien,  from  which  the  child  is  to  imply  that 
the  teacher  has  doubts  in  the  pupil's  ability  to  answer. 
Be  sure  even  children,  who  are  little  sensitive,  feel  it, 
and  weak  ones  are  discouraged  thereby.  Confidence 
begets  confidence.  A  teacher  who  is  anxious  to  per- 
fect herself  in  the  art  of  questioning  will  do  well,  in 
case  she  receives  no  answer,  to  look  for  the  cause  in 
the  nature  of  her  question.  If  she  finds  that  it  is 
correct,  she- may  perhaps  find  the  cause   in  the  want 


THE  ART  OF  QUESTIOXIXG.  159 

of  connection  with  the  previous  answer.  Sometimes 
logic  rciiuires  :i  conneetino;  link  ;  sometimes  it  will 
sulliee  to  repent  the  previous  answer.  Whatever  the 
reason  of  her  want  of  success  maybe  at  the  beginning, 
she  should  not  lose  her  patience,  for  patience  is  a 
requisite  of  success  in  aj)plyi'jg  the  developing  method 
in  the  common  school. 

THE   SOCRATIC  METHOD. 

It  has  been  my  enviable  pleasure  in  life  to  l)e  a 
member  of  a  board  of  examiners.  Grammar,  and 
theory  and  practice,  were  among  the  I)ranches  assigned 
to  me.  I  hardly  ever  resorted  to  a  set  of  cut-and-dried 
questions,  but  almost  invariably  called  for  a  compijsi- 
tion  upon  a  piactical  (piestion  concerning  scliool  work. 
That  composition  would  suffice  to  reveal  the  examinee's 
knowledge  and  skill  in  the  use  of  the  language,  and 
in  many  cases  it  also  revealed  sufficient  knowledge  in 
pedagogy  to  warrant  the  issuing  of  a  certificate. 

One  day  a  number  of  normal-school  graduates  pre- 
sented themselves  for  examination,  accompanied  by  a 
few  teachers  of  several  years'  i)ractice.  As  a  subject 
for  composition,  I  gave  out,  "  How  to  ventilate  a 
schoolroom."  1  do  not  know  what  motive  prompted 
me  at  the  time,  but  I  recollect  to  have  given  the  order 
that  the  composition  was  to  illustrate  the  Socratic 
manner  of  teaching. 

The  experienced  teachers  "threw  up  the  sponge" 
at  once,  saying  that  they  iiad  prepared  themsi'lvi's 
for  an  old-fashioned  examination,  and   were  rea<lv  to 


inO      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

niiswor  a  set  of  in:ittcr-of-fact  questions  in  eacli 
braneli,  as  had  Ixn'u  the  oustoni  ;  while  the  youmjjj 
ladies  from  the  normal  school  (iiiietly  went  to  \v<jrk 
without  grumbling.  It  is  (jueer,  but  undeniable,  that 
the  faithful  discharge  of  duties  in  the  schoolroom  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  is  lial)le  to  make  him  distrust- 
ful of  himself  and  his  accomplishments.  The  result  of 
this  examination  showed  that  the  experienced  teachers 
all  more  or  less  satisfied  me,  while  the  young  dam- 
sels all  more  or  less  failed  in  the  attempt. 

Now,  I  wish  it  to  be  understood,  that  I  do  not  say 
this  to  discredit  the  good  work  of  the  normal  schools. 
Far  from  it,  being  a  normal-school  man  myself.  But 
this  much  I  wish  to  emphasize,  that  experience  in 
the  schoolroom  is  the  best  normal  school  I  know  of. 
Alas  !  it  has  to  l)e  maintained  and  supported  at  the 
expense  of  the  little  children  with  and  upon  whom  the 
young  teacher  is  experimenting.  One  of  the  composi- 
tions then  furnished  witliin  the  short  space  of  an  hour 
I  wish  to  reproduce  here.  I  give  it  with  all  its  errors 
and  shortcomings.  It  illustrates  that  experience  is  the 
best  teacher,  after  all. 

VENTILATIOX    IMPLIES    CIRCULATION   AND 
AGITATION   OF   THE   AIR. 

\A  compoution  exhibiting  the  Socratic  Manner  of  Teaching.] 
Question. — 'What  is  the  purpose  of  the  stove  in  this  room? 
Answer. —  It  is  to  heat  the  air  in  this  room. 

Q. — Will  the  stove  straiu;htways  send  the  heat  into  the  far- 
thest corner?  ^1.  —  No,  it  will  heat  the  air  in  its  immediate 
neighborhood  first. 


Tin:  ART  OF  Ql'ESTIONING.  1<')1 

Q.  —  What  will  the  air  thus  lu'al<!(l  do?  .1.  —  It  will  rise  to 
the  ceiling. 

Q.  —  Why  will  it  do  that  ?     .1.  —  It  is  lii^htcr  than  cidd  air. 

Q.  —  Can  you  give  another  proof  of  tlie  faet,  that  light  gases 
or  fluids  rise,  while  he<ivier  ones  fall?  A.  —  Yes:  if  water  is 
l)oured  into  a  glass  half  full  of  oil,  we  will  see  that  the  water, 
being  heavier,  settles  on  the  bottom,  while  the  lighter  oil  rises 
to  the  top  ;  and  that  holds  good  also  with  air  and  other 
gases. 

Q.  —  Now,  then,  if  the  heated  air  rises  alcove  the  stove,  what 
does  the  cold  air  farther  away  from  the  stove  do  ?  J.  —  It  will 
press  forward  and  take  the  place  vacated  by  the  hot  air.  Tliere 
will  be  a  constant  current  of  cold  air  near  the  floor  towanl  the 
stove,  and  a  constant  rise  of  hot  air  upward. 

Q.  — When  will  this  current  he  slowest  ?  vl.  — When  the  air 
is  pretty  evenly  heated  in  tlie  whole  ixjom. 

Q.  —  What  would  have  to  be  done  to  cool  the  air  off,  in  ease 
it  became  too  hot  to  be  comfortable?  A.  — Well,  the  source 
of  heat  might  be  diminished  by  shutting  off  the  draught  of  the 
stove. 

Q.  — Are  tliere  other  means  for  decreasing  the  heat  of  the  air 
in  the  room  ?  A.  —  Yes,  by  letting  more  cold  air  come  into  tin', 
room  through  the  windows. 

Q.  —  Where  would  you  open  the  windows,  lielow  or  above? 
A.  —  Of  coiu'se,  below. 

(^.  —  Why  ?  A.  —  So  that  there  may  be  a  fresh  supply  of  cold 
air  streaming  toward  oiu-  source  of  heat,  the  stove. 

(^.  —  Would  you  not  also  lower  the  upi)er  sash,  so  as  to  let  hot 
air  escape?     A.  — Yes,  I  believe  that  woulil  be  best. 

V-  —  AVould  you  lower  the  upper  sash  just  as  nmch  as  you 
woidd  raise  the  lower?  A.  —  I  believe  it  would  be  better  to 
raise  the  lower  sash  less  than  the  upper  is  lowered. 

Q.  —  Why  ?  A.  — The  cold  air,  being  heavier,  would  press  in 
with  more  force  than  the  hot  air  could  escape. 

V-  —  What  is  the  influence  of  heal  upon  matter?  .1.  —  It 
exjiands  matter. 


102      KDIKJATIONAL    TOI'K'S   OF  TIIK    DAY. 

(^.  —  Does  it  do  the  8aine  willi  air?  A.  —  Certainly,  air  be- 
ing matter.  And  for  tliis  very  reason  it  would  be  l)elter  to  give 
tlie  liot  air  more  room  to  escape,  than  to  tlie  cold  air  to  enter. 

Q.  — We  will  not  discuss  that  matter  further.  But  tell  me,  is 
the  necessity  for  cooling  the  air  the  only  reason  for  letting  in 
fresh  air?  A.  —  Well,  no:  I  think  the  oxygen  in  the  air  gets 
absorbed  by  so  many  lungs  as  are  present  in  a  schoolroonj,  and 
a  fresh  supply  ought  to  be  provided  by  a  constant  current. 

Q.  —  But  would  it  not  be  rather  uncomfortable  to  those  per- 
sons sitting  near  the  windows,  to  be  subjected  to  the  draught 
of  the  cold  air?  Would  it  not  be  injurious  to  their  health? 
A. — Yes;  but  I  think  that  might  be  obviated  by  letting  the 
cold  air  in  at  a  place  where  it  would  least  incouunode  tlie 
persons  in  the  room. 

Q. — Where  could  that  be?  A. — As  near  the  stove  as 
possible. 

Q.  —  Now,  tlien,  state  how  you  would  arrange  the  windows. 
A. — I  would  raise  the  lower  sash  of  that  window  which  is 
nearest  the  stove,  and  I  would  lower  the  upper  sash  of  that 
window  which  is  farthest  away  from  the  stove. 

Q.  —  Wliat  purposes  woidd  be  reached  by  doing  so  ?  A,  —  An 
even  current  of  fresh  air  would  be  occasioned  thereby,  which 
would  not  only  bring  new  oxygen  into  the  room,  but  would 
carry  off  the  foul  air ;  and,  besides,  it  would  secm'e  an  even 
temperature. 

TWO  EXAMPLES  OF  SOCEATIC  QUESTIONING. 

TnK  first  is  an  imitation  of  Socrates'  inauner  of 
conversation,  by  Dr.  Watts,  which  is  here  reprinted 
for  the  sake  of  ilhistratiou. 

"  If  you  would  lead  a  person  into  the  belief  of  a  future  state 
of  reward  and  punishment  after  life,  you  might  begin  in  some 
such  manner  of  inquiry  as  this,  and  suppose  the  most  obvious 
and  easy  answers  :  — 


TUE  ART  OF  (jUKsrioxixa.  163 

Question.  —  "Does  God  govern  the  Morld?"  Answer. — 
"Surely,  lie  who  made  it  governs  it." 

Q.  —"Is  not  God  both  a  good  and  righteous  governor?" 
A.  —  "  IJoth  these  characters  d()ui)tiess  belong  to  him." 

Q.  —  "  ^Vhat  is  the  true  notion  of  a  good  and  righteous 
governor  ?  "  A.  —  "  That  he  punislies  the  wicked  and  rewards 
tlie  good." 

Q.  —  "Are  the  good  always  rewarded  in  tliislife?"  A. — 
*'  No,  surely,  for  many  virtuous  men  are  miserable  here,  and 
greatly  afflicted." 

V-  —  "  Are  the  wicked  always  punished  in  this  life  ?  " 
A.  —  "No,  verily:  many  of  tliem  live  without  sorrow,  and 
some  of  tlie  vilest  of  men  are  often  raised  to  great  riches 
and  honor." 

Q.  —  "How,  then,  does  God  make  it  api)car  that  he  is  good 
and  righteous?"  A.  —  "I  own,  tlial  there  is  little  appearance 
of  it  on  earth." 

Q.  —  "  Will  there  not  be  a  time,  then,  when  the  tables  shall 
be  turned,  and  the  scene  of  things  changed,  since  God  governs 
mankind  righteously?"  .1.  —  '•  Doubtless,  there  must  be  a 
proper  time  in  which  God  will  make  that  goodness  and 
righteousness  to  appear." 

Q.  — "  If  this  be  not  before  their  death,  how  can  it  be 
done?"  A.  —  "I  can  think  of  no  other  way,  but  by  supposing 
man  to  have  some  existence  after  this  life." 

<^>. — "Are  you  not  convinced,  then,  that  there  must  be  a 
state  of  reward  and  punishment  after  death?"  A. — "Ah, 
yes  !  surely,  I  see  now  plainly,  that  the  goodness  and  right- 
eousness of  Goil,  as  governor  of  the  world,  necessarily  reipiire 
it." 

Tlio  followiiijj;  oxaniple  iiiay  show  that  it  caiiiiot  Imt 
plcasf  a  child  to  lie  tauj^iit  in  tiic  way  indicateil  :  — 

A  boy,  ten  years  of  ajjje,  once  appiit-d  to  me,  say- 
ing,   ''  I   was   told    the    earth   was    round    as   :i    ball. 


1G4      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICS   OF   TlIK    DAY. 

I  tliiiik  I  ought  to  believe  it,  for  it  was  our  teacher 
who  told  us  ;  l^ut  she  said  she  was  g<jiug  to  prove  it 
after  we  had  tried  to  find  proofs  ourselves.  Now, 
how  am  I  going  to  Hnd  them?  "Will  you  hel[)  me?" 
The  following  conversation  ensued  :  — 

Question.  —  "  What  form  will  the  shadow  of  this  book  have 
if  I  hold  it  between  the  light  and  the  waU  ?  " 

Ansioer.  —  "It  will  be  a  four-sided  [rectangular  he  meant] 
shadow." 

Q.  —  "What  form  will  the  shadow  of  this  pencil  have?" 
A.  —  "  Something  like  a  thick,  straight  line." 

Q.  —  "  What  form  does  the  shadow  of  any  object  take?  " 
A.  —  "  Why,  the  same  form  that  the  object  has." 

The  reader  will  please  notice  that  here  was  a  fine  opportu- 
nity to  get  off  the  track.  If  I  had  stopped  to  correct  this 
statement,  and  had  gone  into  the  domain  of  an  artist,  I  should 
not  have  reached  my  purpose.  iSo,  of  coiu'se,  1  left  the  state- 
ment intact,  and  went  on  :  — 

Q.  —  "  Is  the  earth  a  body  that  could  tluow  a  shadow?" 
A.  —  "  Yes;  and  a  mighty  big  one  it  would  be,  I  should 
think." 

Q.  —  "  Have  we  ever  an  opportunity  to  observe  its  shadow?  " 
A.  —  No,  there  isn't  any  wall." 

Q.  —  "  Well,  there  is  no  wall  on  which  the  shadow  could 
fall,  but  are  there  no  objects  in  the  sky  that  might  be  put  into 
the  shade  if  the  earth  should  chance  to  get  between  them  and 
the  sun?"  A.  (after  some  reflection).  —  "Yes,  1  remember 
having  heard  that  the  eclipse  of  tlie  moon  is  caused  by  the 
shadow  of  the  earth." 

Q.  —  "What  form  had  the  earth's  shadow  on  the  moon  ?  " 
A.  —  "I  remember  having  seen  it  twice:  the  shadow  was 
round  [circular  he  meant]  both  times.     Is  it  always  so  ?  " 

Q.  —  "  Yes,  whenever  it  appears,  it  exhibits  eitlier  a  part  of 
a  circular  round  or  a  perfect  circle.     But  tell  me  what  bodies 


THE   AJiT   OF  QUESTIOyiNG.  I<i5 

always  throw  a  circular  shadow."  A.  —  "Balls  or  spheres 
do  that.  Oh,  now  1  see,  yes  I  the  earth  must  he  round  like 
a  ball  :  it  nuist  be  a  sphere." 

(J.  —  "  But  suppose  that  you  take  a  i)late  :  would  not  that 
too,  if  held  in  a  certain  position,  throw  a  circular  shadow".'" 
A.  —  "  Yes,  that's  so." 

(J.  —  "  Would  it  always  do  that,  no  matter  how  you  held 
it  between  the  light  and  the  wall  ?"  A.  —  "Xo,  if  j-ou  liold  it 
a  little  sideways,  it  would  throw  an  oval  shadow;  and  if  you 
held  it  so  that  the  li.uht  struck  the  edge  only,  the  shadow  would 
narrow  down  to  the  shadow  of  a  pencil." 

Q.  — ''  Does  our  earth  ever  throw  another  shadow  than  a 
circular  one  ?  "  A.  —  '*  Xo  :  as  often  as  I  saw  it,  and  as  others 
observed  it,  the  shadow  was  always  circular." 

Q.  —  "What,  then,  do  you  learn  from  this  fact?"  A. — 
"  Since  the  shadow  of  the  earth  upon  the  moon  is  always 
circular,  and  only  balls  or  spheres  can  throw  a  circular 
shadow  always,  I  see  in  that  a  proof  that  our  earth  is  a 
sphere." 

I  then  went  on  nnd  questioned  the  l)oy  witli  regard 
to  the  fact  that  the  earth  has  hardly  ever  the  same 
position  between  the  two  heavenly  bodies,  sun  and 
moon,  and  that,  therefore,  we  could  positive]}'  assert 
that  the  form  of  the  earth  could  be  nothing  but  a 
sphere. 

HOW   Tin-:   MIND   GROWS. 

It  is  a  well-understood  and  convenient  phiase  to  say 
the  uiiud  urows  in  concentric  circles.  The  horizon  of 
the  child  grows  more  extended  as  it  gathers  knowledge 
and  experience,  just  as  its  horizon  of  vision  grows 
more  extended  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  body. 
The  baljy'b  horizon  con.sists  of  the  four  walls  of  the 


IGG      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    1>AV. 


nursery.  The  young  ehild's  horizon  is  Ixnnided  by 
the  garden  wall  or  the  neighboring  street.  That  of  the 
child  in  \\\v  primary  school  is  ai)t  to  be  bounded  b^-  the 
limits  of  the  t(j\vn  or  city  ;  it  is  only  in  rare  eases  that 
the  geographical  horizon  of  a  child  extends  beyond  the 


Fig.  1. 

native  city  or  town  by  the  aid  of  imagination.  The 
horizon  of  a  thorough  student  of  geography  and 
astronomy  is  literally  boundless. 

The  course  of  study  affords  an  illustration  of  this 
concentric  growth  of  the  mind,  inasmuch  as  it  arranges 
all  studies  concentrically.  (vSee  Fig.  1.)  Here  we 
notice,  that  what   are   object-lessons    in    the    primary 


THE   ART   OF  QUESTIONING.  VM 

grades  become  ualural  history,  physiolog}',  physics,  ami 
chemistry  iu  the  upper  and  hi;2;hest  grades.  Tlie  exer- 
cises of  the  cliild  in  iiumher  in  the  primary  grade  con- 
tain all  the  germs  of  the  higher  nuitiiematics,  and  the 
child  who  measures  the  area  of  a  triangle  or  trapezium 
lays  a  good  foundation  fur  the  study  of  geometry  or 
trigonometry.  I  need  not  further  enumerate  the  stud- 
ies, or  show  how  the  mental  horizon  is  widened  in  ever 
larger  and  larger  circles.  The  foregoing  illustration 
explains  the  matter  fully. 

In  justice  to  myself  I  will  say  that  the  arrangement 
of  the  branches  of  study  given  in  this  cut  is  not  to  be 
regarded  as  final,  or  even  a  correct  copy  of  what  may 
be  found  iu  the  different  courses  of  stud}'.  The  latter 
vary  in  many  instances.  It  is  my  object  to  merely 
show  tiie  principle  underlying  the  course  of  study  ; 
namely,  ever}'  well-arranged  course  of  study  pri-sup- 
poses  mental  growth  in  concentric  circles.  The  yearly 
rings  may  differ  iu  width  also. 

And  after  the  reader  has  contemi)lated  the  illustra- 
tion sufficiently  to  see  what  it  signifies,  let  him  cast  a 
glance  at  Fig.  2. 

This  is  to  represent  how  erratically  Nature  executes 
the  wonderful  plans  of  the  course  of  study.  See  how 
she  causi's  piotuberances  and  indentations.  Notic-e 
iiow  the  child,  in  one  3'ear,  rushes  forward  in  one 
branch,  and  seems  to  make  no  headway  in  others.  This 
cut  is  not  to  be  interjjreted  as  representing  the  results 
of  Nature's  work  in  every  case.  It  is  merely  a  fair 
sample  of  Nature's  work  as  it  is  when   it  leaves   the 


168      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    pAV. 

hands  of  the  teacher  after  a  twelve-years'  course  of 
school  education.  'JMie  liaruionious  development  of  all 
the  inborn  faculties  of  mind,  heart,  and  liody,  is  a 
beautiful  and  touchinu;  phrase;  but,  I  am  sorry  to  sa}', 
nothing  but  a  phrase. 


rig.  2.— "A"  Possible  Result. 


Nature  offers  man}^  examples  of  similar  procedure. 
Look  at  the  annual  rings  of  a  tree.  The  first  few  rings 
around  the  heart  are  almost  mathematically  correct ; 
but,  as  the  tree  grows  thicker,  protuberances  and  inden- 
tations are  seen,  often  resulting  from  very  insignificant 
causes.  The  bite  of  an  insect,  the  bending  of  the 
trunk  before  the  storm,  a  slight  abrasure,  and  similar 
causes,  may  lead  to  an  irregular  grow'th. 


THE   AUT  OF  ({UESTIONING.  109 

Similar  trifling  causes  may  warp  the  uuntal  cf)urse 
of  a  child,  and  make  it  irrcunlar.  Tlic  love  or  the 
hatred  of  a  teacher  may  give  lise  to  an  enthusiasm  or 
an  indifference  in  tlie  pursuit  of  a  certain  l)ranch  of 
study,  and  at  once  we  will  see  either  great  progress  or 
retrogression  in  the  branches  be  or  she  teaches.  A  few 
mild  words  of  approbation  or  commendation  ma}-  prove 
a  strong  impetus,  while  a  severe  punishment  or  super- 
fluous praise  ma}'  cause  the  contrary.  Lucky  or  un- 
lucky unforeseen  circumstances  may  influence  the  even 
and  harmonious  concentric  giowth  of  the  child,  and  a 
very  considerable  bump  or  a  hollow  may  be  the  result. 
We  are  much  more  children  of  chance  than  we  are 
willing  to  admit. 

From  the  illustratif)ns  it  may  also  be  seen  that  some 
branches  of  study  stand  in  intimate  relation  to  each 
other.  It  is  common  practice  to  divide  the  different 
branches  into  h'}ig>iisfic  (such  as  pertain  to  language), 
mathematical  (which,  in  the  earliest  stages  of  school- 
life  are  purely  arithmetical),  scientific  branches  (which 
in  the  earlier  stages 'are  ol)ject-lessons) ,  and  accoynpli.sh- 
ments  (such  as  writing,  reading,  drawing,  singing,  etc. ) . 

A    REVIEW  LESSON  IX  PSYCHOLOGY. 

Oru  training  class  had  a  review  lesson  one  day.  of 
which  I  will  give  a  summary,  and  will  term  it  •"  The 
First  Eighteen  Years  of  Life."  The  diagram  (Fig.  o) 
may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  summary  given. 

Intellectual  life  widens  its  horizon  with  cxcry 
succeeding  year.     This  is  indicated  by  the  tliverging 


170      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'TCS   OF   TIIK    DAY 


lines.  Tlie  pnnillel  l)ars  signify  the  years.  The 
clonl)le  lines  in  the  diagram,  which  mark  the  boundaries 
between  the  dilTerent  grades  of  school,  are  not  indica- 
tive of  any  real  marked  difference  in  treatment  of 
either  subject  or  object  of  instruction,  pupil,  or  matter 
of  instruction,  but  are  given  to  point  out  a  difference 
which  is  one  only  in  name. 


Eighteenth. 
Seventeenth. 
Sixteenth 
Fifteenth. 
Fourteenth. 
Thirteenth. 
Twelfth. 
Eleventh 


High 
Scliool 


Second. 
First  year  of  life 


Early  Childhood 
and  Infancy. 


Fig.  3. 


The  first  period  of  life  is  that  of  infancy  and  early 
childhood.  The  next  four  years  are  those  of  the 
primary  school ;  the  next  four,  those  of  the  intermedi- 
ate, often  called  grammar  school ;  and  the  last  four, 
of  the  high  school  or  college.  The  dotted  line,  begin- 
ning in  tlie  first  3'ear,  and  running  up  in  a  curve,  is 
to  indicate  a  division  between  receptive  and  creative 
activit}^ 


THE  Airr  OF  (jVEsTioyiNa.  171 

Thus  we  find,  that  in  the  ciuliest  i)eiiod  of  life  the 
mind  is  roeei)tive  to  a  greater  degree,  comparatively, 
than  in  an}'  other  i)eriod.  It  is  the  age  of  sensation. 
Sensations  are  caused  by  the  outside  world,  formed 
into  percepts,  and  these  latter  into  concepts.  Pcr- 
ci'i)ts  and  concepts  are  stored  up,  and  tiius  memory  is 
created  ;  but  few,  if  any,  clear  ideas  are  formed. 

A  recent  writer  terms  the  two  kinds  of  activity  of 
the  mind,  sense-action  and  tliought-action.  Well, 
very  little  thought-action  occurs  in  this  period  ;  but 
from  the  moment  that  the  child  enters  school,  the  age 
of  observation  begins.  Tlie  child's  senses  are  trained, 
and  it  observes  objects  systematically,  —  their  color, 
form,  number,  size,  etc.  The  mental  activity  here  is 
both  receptive  and  creative,  though  not  in  equal  pro- 
portion. The  child  learns  to  analyze  and  synthesize. 
All  teaching  in  this  period  is  done  by  means  of 
objects  or  illustrations. 

The  next  following  period  is  the  age  of  abstraction, 
in  which  receptive  and  creative  activity  of  the  mind 
are  about  equally  divided.  Symbols  take  the  place  of 
objects  in  teaching. 

The  last  stage  of  school  life  may  be  termed  the  age 
of  reflection  and  generalization.  Research  in  every 
direction  is  indulged  in,  and  self-activity  is  stimulated. 
Comparatively  few  new  things  are  learned  in  this 
period  of  life.  Cognitions  previously  ac(piired  are 
verified;  knowledge  is  systematically  arranged:  gen- 
eralization ami  di'Mnilion  follow  up  the  rt'siilts  of 
research   and    indixidnal   work.       And    if    tlie    .sludent 


172      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE   DAY. 

enters  a  university,  lie  goes  even  (lcei)er  into  tlie 
mysteries  of  knowledge ;  Ijut  it  is  not  neeessaiy  to 
follow  him  there. 

The  space  on  the  left  side  of  the  dotted  line,  in  the 
cut,  is  to  indicate  the  amount  of  recei)tive  activity 
enoaged  in  (hning  these  years ;  the  space  on  the 
right,  the  amount  of  rellective  or  creative  activity. 

It  is  not  to  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  life  of 
ever}'  child  that  i)asses  through  our  schools  resembles 
this  sketch.  No  two,  on  the  contrary,  are  alike.  The 
diagram  is  merely  to  show,  in  lough  outlines,  the 
principle  underlying  the  manner  of  teaching  in  the  dif- 
ferent grades.  This  being  a  brief  summary,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  apologize  for  its  sketchiness. 

SEE,   DO,   AND    THEN   TELL. 

My  friend  Principal  C,  of  Cincinnati,  and  I,  met 
one  day  in  the  train  on  the  way  home  ;  and  since  we 
always  "talk  shop"  when  we  meet,  we  were  soon 
deep  in  a  professional  conversation  which  was  highly 
interesting  to  me.  Principal  C.  is  not  given  to  cant 
and  small-talk  ;  his  conversation  is  invariably  freighted 
with  profound  thought,  and  amusing  as  well  as 
mstructive  bits  of  experience  of  school-life. 

Said  he  on  this  occasion,  "  After  reading  all  this 
interminable  talk  (pardon  this  incongruity)  about 
methods,  that  now  fills,  if  not  the  air,  at  least  the 
spacious  columns  of  our  numerous  professional  jour- 
nals, I  ask  myself  with  wonder  and  astonishment.  Is 
there  any  thing  else  in  that,  or  any  thing  better,  than 


THE   ART   OF  QUESTIONING.  173 

is  my  mode  of  procedure,  wliieli  ciiliiiiiiates  in  lliis 
short,  pith}',  but  witlial  eompieiieusive,  rule  :  '  First 
see,  then  do,  and  then  tell  about  it '  ?  IJoil  down  all 
that  the  advocates  of  modern  teachiui^  say  aljout 
methods,  and  it  will  amount  to  nothing  more  than 
this:  See,  do,  and  tell." 

"Yes,  friend  C,"  said  I,  "  undoul)tedly  you  arc 
right.  Your  rale  is  the  gist  and  essence  of  many  a 
sermon  on  the  new  education.  As  you  and  1,  and 
un(iuestioual)ly  many  others,  understand  it,  it  is  a 
condi'nsed  code,  comprehensive  iMiough,  and  sensilile 
enough,  to  satisfy  any  one  who  has  caught  the  idea, 
that  ecUication  is  not  a  result,  but  an  action,  the  result 
of  which  is  culture ;  any  one  who  knows  that  the 
human  being  is  not  outside  but  within  nature,  and 
therefore  subject  to  the  laws  of  natural  growth.  Ikit, 
sir,  arc  you  aware  that  the  laconic  garment  of  your 
rule  is  the  source  of  great  danger?  See  how  eaaily 
it  is  misconstrued." 

'•How  so,  friend  K.  ?  how  can  it  l)e  misconstrued? 
I'll  grant  that  it  may  1)c  misunderstood,  but  I  duuljt 
that  it  will  be  purposely  misconstrued." 

'•  Well,  I  have  a  certain  ichthyosaurus  of  a  school- 
master in  my  mind  (for  whom  you  need  not  search 
veiy  far),  who  would  reply  at  once,  if  you  pronounced 
your  rule  to  him  :  '  That's  exactly  what  1  am  doing. 
First,  I  make  my  puiiil  sne  the  text  in  the  book,  that 
is,  read  it;  then  I  make  him  do,  by  lenining  it  ccrbd- 
tiia  et  literatim j  and  lastly  I  make  him  /t//,  that  is, 
recite  it.'     See,  honey?  " 


174      EDUCATIONAL    TOl'lCS   OF   Till':    DAY. 

"  I  dcclaro,  you  are  a  vcritaljle  (idoocutns  iliaboli, 
brotlici'  K." 

"  J  tell  3'ou,  fiieixl  C,  3'ou  may  pronounce  a  new- 
law  of  i)edagogy,  or  formulate  an  old  forgotten  or 
disregarded  law  anew,  one  which  is  purposely  trodden 
under  foot  for  the  better  convenience  of  school- 
keepers,  and  the  ichthyosauri  and  plesiosauri  of  our 
profession  will  prove  to  you,  with  an  alacrity  worthy 
of  a  better  purpose,  that  it  is  '  exactly  what  they  arc 
doing.'  They  will  denounce  you  as  an  impostor,  be- 
cause what  you  propose  is  '  nothing  new.'  " 

"Come  now,"  said  C,  "I  grant  m}'  pithy  rule  is 
not  quite  without  its  weak  points.  But  I  trust  you  do 
not  interpret  it  wrongl}'.  Let  me  hear  how  you  would 
make  this  'see,  do,  and  then  tell,'  palatable  to  your 
teachers." 

"  My  interpretation,  briefly  stated,  would  l)e  this  :  — 

"I.  See.  —  All  instruction  in  the  common  school 
should  begin  objectively  ;  it  should  first  appeal  to  the 
senses,  and  not  to  the  eye  onh\  To  use  a  homely 
illustration  :  We  do  not  fully  know  an  apple,  until 
we  have  not  only  seen,  but  tasted,  felt,  smelled,  and 
even  heard  it  (fall  or  roll  on  the  floor).  Every  branch 
of  study  has  a  substratum  of  sense-percepts,  from 
which  will  result  those  nccessar}'  primary'  concepts 
and  ideas  which,  in  turn,  will  form  the  solid  founda- 
tion of  sound  judguient  or  reasoning.  As  the  mighty 
Pike's  Peak  is  formed  by  the  aid  of  imagination  out 
of  a  modest  elevation  near  home,  viewed  by  the  child 
thousands  of  miles  away  from  the  peak,  so,  out  of  the 


THE  Airr  OF  QrEsTioxixa.  175 

simple  ordinances  and  enactments  of  a  city  council, 
the  cliiltl  will  construe  the  law-making  activity  of  the 
United  States  Congress.  All  the  knowledge  offered 
to  the  child  is  elementary.  The  very  iinnie  of  the 
schools  indicates  as  mnch  :  they  are  elementary  schocjls. 
The  school  of  life  will  widen  the  child's  knowledge  ; 
experience  will  bnild,  npon  the  foundation  laid  in 
youth,  a  superstructure  which  will  tower  up  as  high 
as  the  foundation  will  permit.  Make  the  first  impres- 
sions deep,  very  deep,  and  they  will  be  lasting  ones. 
The  text-book  plesiosaurus  is  like  unto  the  man  who 
intends  to  make  an  impression  in  a  wax  cake,  and 
who  softly  strikes  it  with  a  [)eacock-feather.  He  does 
not  succeed  with  the  first  stroke;  but  patiently  he 
repeats  the  stroke  ten  thousand  times,  and  at  last 
makes  an  impression  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  A 
sensible  man  a|)|)lies  a  sledge-hammer,  and  lo  I  with 
one  stroke  he  makes  a  deep  impression.  A  direct 
appeal  to  the  senses  will  make  a  deep  impression. 
Therefore  real  objects  brought  into  the  schoolroom 
are  more  servici-able  tlian  illustrations;  where  their 
presence  in  school  is  out  of  the  question,  sve  may 
take  the  pupils  out  to  them.  AVhere  all  that  is  im- 
practicable, illustrations  or  oj:her  imitative  representa- 
tions will  serve  better  than  mere  verbal  explanations 
or  definitions.  Give  the  pupils  opportunities  for 
seeing,  that  is,  |)erceiving,  observing,  investigating, 
handling ;  let  them  not  l)e  satisfied  with  mere  hear-say 
evidence  as  found  in  books, — and  oh  the  wonderful 
impetus  the  child-inind  receives  ! 


170      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICH   OF   THE  DAY. 


"II.  Do. — Perception  leads  over  to  concepts  and 
ideas.  The  memory,  being  the  receptacle  in  which  tiie 
mind  collects  these  concepts  and  ideas,  offers  material 
to  the  mind's  creative  power,  imagination.  Elementary 
or  primary  ideas  gained  by  actual  use  of  the  senses 
are  like  seeds  which  grow  and  incite  to  action.  A 
child  who  lias  seen  tliat  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle 
are  equal  to  two  right  angles,  by  applying  the  angles 
of  a  pasteboard  triangle  to  a  straight  line,  is  not  likely 
to  rest  content  after  that.  The  demonstration  has 
something  so  overpowering  about  it,  that  the  pupil 
will  try  and  demonstrate  ocher 
geometrical  problems  iiT  a  similar 
way.  The  result  of  this  keen 
observation  will  make  him  do, 
act,  work.  Vivid  seeing  is  the 
root  of  knowledge;  action,  its 
increase  and  a[)plicalion.  By 
doing  such  an  example  as  f  of  4  [I  mean,  showing  it 
by  means  of  an  illustration  like  the  one  in  the  mar- 
gin], the  child  will  gain  knowledge  of  fractions,  such  as 
is  not  gained  by  mere  'figuring.'  A  pupil  who  thus 
learns  is  not  a  passive  receptacle  of  book-wisdom. 
His  knowledge  is  experience  ;  he  is  a  conqueror,  and 
proud  of  his  possessions.  Certaiul}',  the  seeing  alone 
will  not  create  knowledge,  nor  will  the  doing  alone  do 
it ;  but  both  together  will  work  miracles.  And  this 
leads  me  to  the 

"  III.    Tell.  — AVhen  a  child  gains  knowledge  by  keen 
observation  and  by  skilful  applicatiou,  he  is  bound  to 


:-■) 


rriE   ART  OF  QUESTIONING.  177 

tell  all  al)oiit  it.  Like  Pallas  from  the  head  of  Jupiter, 
so  a  tliought  fonned  in  the  mind  wrestles  for  expres- 
sion. It  is  bound  to  be  formulated.  The  proverb  has 
it,  '  Of  what  the  heart  is  full,  the  lips  will  speak  :  '  and 
30U  nia^'  as  well  substitute  '  mind  '  for  '  heart ; '  the 
proverl)  will  hold  good.  However  imperfect  the  child's 
language  may  be  at  first  in  the  attem[)ts  at  giving 
expressions  to  indigenous  tlioughts,  the  language  im- 
proves wonderfuU}'.  The  mere  repetition  of  something 
committed  to  memory  from  the  printed  page  makes 
only  thoughtless  prattlers  ;  the  more  thoughtless,  the 
more  pretentious  the  words  are  that  are  committed." 

"  I  like  your  explanation,"  said  friend  C.  ;  "  and  it 
proves  very  forcibly  how  necessar}*  is  the  vast  amount 
of  explanation  and  interpretation  in  the  educational 
press.  These  journals  are  doing  a  noble  work.  We 
are  only  just  beginning  to  learn  the  art  of  leaching. 
Let  us  thank  our  stars  that  we  are  i)ermitted  to  live 
to  see  it  doue." 

A    PROOF  POSIT fVF. 

.  "While  doing  institute  work  some  time  ago,  I  g.avc 
a  lesson  in  psychology,  showing  that  the  assimilation 
of  thought  progressed  more  favoral)ly  if  new  ideas 
were  linked  to  previous  cognitions,  that  is,  cognitions 
previously  actpiircd ;  that  there  was  dose  afTinity 
between  eertain  items  of  knowledge  and  the  mcMuory, 
while  the  latter  showed  a  decided  hostility  to  otlu-rs, 
which,  in  fine,  it  rejected  as  the  stomach  does  cherry- 
stones.     Naturally,  I  spoke  less  graphically  than   this, 


178      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  TIIK    DAY. 

elaborated  upon  my  theme  in  philosophic  terms,  and 
noticed  painfully  that  ray  words  had  little,  if  any, 
effect ;  they  certainly  did  not  strike  fire.  I  found  no 
resi)onse  in  the  eyes  of  ray  audience,  some  of  whom 
seemed  slightl}'  hored. 

I  paused,  laid  down  my  note-book,  and  cast  al)out 
for  a  remedy.  And  then  I  had  an  inspiration  which  I 
quickly  resolved  to  act  upon.  I  dropped  my  subject 
''  like  a  hot  poker,"  as  the  funny  fellow  has  it,  and 
requested  the  audience  to  propose  a  few  conundrums 
to  me.  Some  moments  passed  in  hesitation,  and  then, 
being  urged  a  little  by  others,  a  young,  sprightly  teacher 
asked  with  a  mischievous  smile,  ''  Wliy  is  a  young 
lad}-  like  a  door-knob?  "  I  knew  the  answer  ;  namely, 
'•'■  Because  she  is  something  to  adore."  This  caused  a 
ripple  of  laughter.  I  placed  this  question  on  the 
board. 

Another  of  my  hearers,  a  rather  wealth}'  old  lady, 
owner  of  several  houses,  who  had  been  induced  to  be 
present  at  this  afternoon's  lecture,  proposed  this: 
"•  What  intimate  relations  exist  between  a  tenant  and 
his  landlord?  "  —  '•''  Parental  relations."  A  veueralde 
gentleman  proposed  this:  '' Why  is  a  bald  head  like 
heaven  ?  "  —  ''  Because  there  is  no  dyeing  nor  parting 
there." 

Here  1  closed  the  list,  and  now  showed  that  it  was  a 
handsome  yonvg  man  who  remembered  most  readily 
a  conundrum  about  a  young  lady ;  the  landlady's 
memory  was  least  sluggij^h  in  things  which  related  to 
her  "pay-rental"  relations;   while  the  old  gentleman 


THE  ART  OF  QUESTJO.MXa.  1T'.» 

quickly  rectillcMl  a  Cfjiuindiiiin  which  rctlcctcd  111)011  iiis 
billiard-ball  skull.  Are  not  these  three  facts  illustra- 
tive of  the  psychological  niaxiiu  1  hud  stated,  and 
which  I  tlien  repeated?  (See  i)ejiinning  of  lliis  arti- 
cle.) My  audience  hiughed  heartily:  they  understood 
now  what  I  had  aimed  at.  When  I  took  uf)  my  theme 
I  was  listened  to  with  undivided  attention,  and  the 
sparks  of  compreiiension  visible  in  every  eye  were 
proofs  positive  of  working  minds  which  followed  my 
train  of  thought.     My  lesson  was  a  success  tiiat  day. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

AEITHMETIO. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

ARITHMETIC. 

HOW   TO   TEACH  FRACTIONS. 

I  START  with  tlic  presumption,  that  the  human  mind 
grows  in  concentric  circles,  which,  I  admit,  is  nothing 
but  a  presumption ;  for  Dame  Nature  is  much  too 
erratic  to  permit  a 
mathematically  cor- 
rect expansion  in 
every  direction. 
Now,  I  claim  an 
average  of  ninety 
degrees  for  n  u  m- 
bers,  alias  arithme- 
tic (this  consider- 
al)le  portion  of  the 
child's  horizon  is 
claimed  for  argu- 
ment's sake  only:  it  varies  with  dilTerent  children). 
And,  witliin  this  one-fourtli  of  the  nientnl  horizon, 
J  claim  at  least  ten  d(?grt!es  for  calculations  involving 
fractional  numbers.      (See  cut.) 

From  this  rather  artificial  exemplification  we  see 
th;d  almost  if  not  every  part  of  arithmetic  can,  and 
ought  to  be,  taught  in  the  lowest  gr:idc  of  school. 

is;; 


184      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC fi   OF   THE   DAY. 

We  find  that  most  young  children  know  ono-half 
and  ono-qnai'ter.  And  this  knowledge  has  been  gained 
cnipirically  ;  for  instance,  wiien  mothers  cut  the  pie  at 
dinner.  Where  there  are  several  children  in  a  family, 
the  younger  ones  learn  the  fundamental  facts  of  frac- 
tions fiom  the  older  children.  This  knowledge  is  not 
scientific,  the  child  could  not  define  the  term  "•  fraction  " 
as  yet ;  but  it  is  clear  enough  for  our  purposes,  which 
aim  at  a  harmonious  growth  in  ever}'  direction. 

In  the  second  year  we  introduce  a  few  more  frac- 
tions, such  as  ^,  1^,  \.  In  the  third  year  we  use  actual 
weights  and  measures,  allow  the  pupil  to  handle  them, 
and  to  "  play  store."  These  measures  give  us  oppor- 
tunities of  introducing  such  fractions  as  f ,  f ,  |,  f ,  etc., 
and  we  are  not  slow  in  making  use  of  them.  And  so 
we  go  on  widening  the  scope  in  the  succeeding  circles. 

The  regular  instruction  in  the  fundamental  rules  of 
fractions  properly  begins  in  the  fifth  year  of  school, 
while  in  most  schools  it  does  not  begin  till  the  sixth 
year  (C  grammar). 

In  the  grades  in  which  fractions  are  taught,  illustra- 
tions of  various  kinds  should  be  applied.  I  know  of 
no  better  means  than  colored  paper  cut  in  squares  of 
about  four  inches.  It  costs  but  a  trifle,  if  the  paper  is 
bought  by  the  quantity  and  cut  into  shape  by  any  book- 
binder or  printer.  For  our  purposes  the  squares  would 
be  greatly  improved  if  certain  lines  dividing  them  into 
thirds,  fourths,  fifths,  sixths,  eighths,  etc.,  were  mado 
hy  perforatijig  the  paper.  Thus  the  process  of  folding 
could  be  done  much  more  rapidly  and  accurately. 


ARITHMETIC. 


185 


(a)     KKDUCTIOX. 

TJoflncinfj  to  liiolicr  and  lower  liTuis  is  done  tluis  :  — 


^ 

m/y./'', 

;  wTw 


2 4     6     _8       10 

3  —  (>'  — 9'—  1^'—  IS* 

This  illustration  is  so  convincing  tlitit  it  speaks  for 
itself.  An}'  child  will  see  the  "  true  inwardness  "  and 
the  mode  of  procedure  in  reduction  of  fractions,  excei)t 
one  who  cannot  sec  through  a  barn-door  even  when  it 
is  wide  open. 

(/>)    ADDITION    AND    SUBTRACTION. 

Adding  and  subtracting,  and  the  necessary  finding 
of  a  common  denominator,  is  done  in  the  good  old- 
fashioned  vvay,  SHi[)plemented  by  such  illustrations  as 
the  following  :  — 

1.  Example:  Add  §  and  ^. 


l:,.-'^ 

2  —  4  .     4    I    5  —  9 —  1  1 

3  —  15  '    IJT^C  — H— ^2- 

2.   Example  :  .Subtract  \  from  5. 


5  _  4  _  1 
0        H  —  6* 


180      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   TIIK   DAY. 

It  is  obvious,  that  I  can  show  here  only  the  bare 
outlines  of  mv  mode  of  procedure ;  but  I  covet  an 
opi)ortuiiity  to  show  it  as  extensively  as  I  do  it  in  the 
schoolroom. 

(c)     MLLTIPLICATION. 

Here  we  have  the  following  cases :  — 
3.  Example  :  3  x  |  =  what? 


3X^  =  1,  or  21. 


This  answer  can  be  made  \Qvy  obvious  by  taking  two 
of  the  three  fourths  of  the  third  sheet,  and  completing 
the  first  two  squares  ;  one  fourth  will  be  left  over. 

4.  Example:  3x2|.  This  explains  itself,  being  a 
repetition  of  3  x  |,  plus  3x2. 

5.  Example  :  f  of  2  is  also  easily  illustrated,  namely, 
thus  :  Fold  the  two  sheets  in  halves,  which  gives  four 
fourths  of  two,  and 
take  three  of    them. 


SI 

■ 

^ 


Or,  fold  each  whole 
into  four  equal  parts,  wiiich  gives  eight  fourths;  then 
take  three  fourths  of  the  first  sheet,  and  three  fourths 
of  the  second.     Both  give  the  same  result. 

6.  Example  :  ^  of  f  is  still  easier,  as  it  requires  but 
one  leaf.  First  fold  it  as  it  is  seen  in  a,  then  as  it  is 
seen  in  b. 


% 

''€ 

1^ 

^nlntinn  •    3v4  — 12__£_ — 3. 
.■501UU0n  .    jX  5— 2^(7— 1^—5^. 


ATiVnniKTIC. 


187 


7.  Exrinii)le  :  \  of  'l^  is  pliiinh' seen  in  the  follow- 
ing figure.  Take  three  whole  sheets,  cut  off  one  fourth 
of  the  thirtl.  The  arrow  across  the  2^  indicates  l 
of  2|. 


'^^ 


mM«. 


wA    mMmi, 


Solution 


3  X  93 

4  A  -4 


X 


33 
1  G 


9  y. 


8.  Example  :  3|  X  2|,  is  a  mere  repetition  of  exer- 
cises similar  to  the  preceding  one,  except  that  it  takes 
more  whole  sheets  to  illustrate  it. 

Solution  :  3!  x  '>\  =  ¥  X  5  =  -W  =  10. 


(d)    DIVISION. 

All  examples  in  division  of  fractions  can  be  illus- 
trated by  means  of  our  pai)cr  scpiares.  Take  these 
cases : — 

(1)1-2;  (2)  ^--2;  (3)  2-i  ;  (4)  2-^1;  (5)  2^ 
^i;   (6)  2^-J;    (7)  |-f. 

9.  Example:  A-r-2  =  ^.  It  is  easily  seen, 
that  it  is  the  same  as  taking  |  of  |.  ^ 

10.  P^xann)le :  |-=-2=j^.  What  is  done 
witli  one-fourth  in  exami)le  9,  is  now  done 
with  threi'-fourths. 

11.  Example:  2-i-J[=8.  It  means 
how  many  times  is  ^  contained  in  2 
whok'  ones?     Ans.  S  times. 

12.    Example:    2-=-f-  =  2|.      It   means  ~^- —^ 
how  many  tunes  are  ^   contained   in   2? 
Solution  :   2  oiJ  f^f .  or  8^-3  =  2|. 


fT 

i 

188      EDUCATIOXAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DAY. 


% 

13.  Exnniplc :  2.V-^]  =  10.  It  means  bow  man}' 
times  is  \  contained  in  2^,  or  J, 
or  Y*-?     Ans.  10  times. 

11.  P^xample :  'l\-^\.  It  means 
:•-;  how  many  times  are  |  of  1  cou- 
j  1  taiued  iu  2i,  §,  or  lQ  ?     Ans.  3^ 

-J  times. 

15.    Example:  f-H|.     This  means  how  man}' times 
is  f  of  a  whole  contained  in  |  of  a 
whole?     (It  does  cot  mean  \'>f\-) 
Solve  it  thus.     Divide  each  strip, 
that  is,  each  fourth,  into  five  equal 
pai-ts,  and  each  fifth  of  the  square 
into  four  equal   parts ;    this  gives 
us  |§  and  \%.     Now  it  is  readily  seen,  that  4  is  con- 
tained in  I  as  many  times  as  12  is  contained  in  15, 
namely,  1^  times. 
Solution  :  5_^3_3 


^X 


15 
12 


li. 


The  example  f  of  f  would  he  a 
different  thing,  as  is  seen  from  this 
ilhisti-ation. 
Solution  •  3 


3X4 


9 
20' 


The   following   illustration  serves  to  make  the  last 
problem  still   clearer. 
Here    we    have   three 


Ilp- 


strips  across,  or  |  of  a  '^y^A \  A ~^  H~H~H  "^--^-^ — ^j^ 
whole  ;  then  we  have 
3  vertical  strips,  or  |.     Tlie  arrows  in  the  third  square 
crossuig  eacli  other  mdicate  \  of  3  =  ^%. 


AEITHMETIC.  189 

The  render  will  please  consider,  that  all  the  intrica- 
^  cies  of  divt>iioii  in  fractions  cannot  l)e  treated  in  a  short 
".  .-iirt.icle  like  this.     What  I  offer  are  only  the  elements. 

r^uils  who   thus    base    their   knowledge   on  a   lirni 
"i      founckition  of   sense  perception,  and  who  are  accus- 
tomed   to    solve    problems    in    reality,    not  merely  in 
'      figures,  obtain  a  clear  insight  into  fractional  numbers, 
I      and  nevei"'find  ditticulty  in  using  fractions.     My  pu[)ils 
do  not  "  learn  "  —  that  is,  commit —  any  rules  first,  and 
■  operate  according  to  them  afterward,  but  learn  to  do 
examples  first.     AVith  them,  rules  are  the   results  ob- 
tained   from    practice,    by   "seeing,   doing,   and   then 
telling  about  it." 

HOW   TO    TEACH  PERCENTAGE. 

In  ray  article  on  fractions^  I  stated  that  the  child's 
mental  horizon  grows  in  concentric  circles,  and  that 
every  department  of  knowledge  and  science  can  be, 
and  virtually  is,  taught  in  the  earliest  childhood. 
Only,  we  must  well  understand  that  in  this  the  child's 
action  is  a  purely  unconscious  action :  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  child  v»'ho  learns  the  ideas  one-half  and 
one-fourth  empirically,  l^y  seeing  a  pie  cut;  the  child 
who  learns  familiar  measures,  as  pint,  quart,  pound, 
ounce,  yard,  empirically,  liy  using  them  at  houie,  and 
when  sent  to  the  grocery  on  an  errand ;  the  child  who 
learns  a  little  later  tliat  one-half  is  equal  to  five- 
tenths;  the  child  who  learns  that  he  pays  six  cents 
for  the  loan  of  one  dollar,  and  similar  things,  —  lays 
the    foundation    of    all    the    departments   of    higher 


100      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC'S   OF  THE   DAY. 

arithmetic  quite  early,  without  learning  rules  such  as 
text-books  prescribe. 

The  axiom,  that  new  cognitions  should  be  linked  to 
those  previously  gained,  should  be  borne  in  mind 
when  attempting  to  teach  percentage.  Decimal  fiac- 
tions  are  taught  by  com[)aring  them  with  vulgar  or 
common  fractions  ;  and  Ihi;  main  point  to  be  impressed 
is.  that  the  denominators  of  vulgar  fractions  may  be 
different,  while  that  of  decimal  fractions  is  only  ten, 
or  a  multiple  of  ten.  The  same  relation  which  is 
found  between  decimals  and  common  fractions  exists 
between  expressions  couched  in  the  terra  "  per  cents." 
and  others  such  as,  "One  is  to  five  as  twent3'  is  to 
one  hundred,"  one  lieing  one-fifth  of  five,  and  twenty 
one-fifth  of  one  hundred. 

In  American  schools  all  over  the  land,  even  where 
a  more  rational  idea  of  grading  pupils  and  their  work 
has  found  an  abiding  place,  the  mode  of  marking  on 
the  scale  of  one  hundred  is  not  entii-ely  gone  out  of 
vogue.  While  I  denounce  and  condemn  this  mode 
unequivocall}',  I  would  prudently  make  use  of  the 
knowledge  which  the  mode  conveys.  Despite  Super- 
intendent Marble's  onslaught  upon  the  maxim,  "  From 
the  known  to  the  unknown,"  I  hold  that  it  is  better 
to  build  upon  w-hat  the  pupils  know.  They  know 
that  when  they  miss  two  words  out  of  ten,  their  work 
must  be  marked  eight}^  The}'  know  that  when  they 
miss  one  out  of  twenty-five,  they  miss  one  twenty- 
fifth,  or  four-hundredths,  and  therefore  their  work  is 
marked  ninety-six. 


AUITIIMETIC. 


101 


The  expression  "  per  centum,"  of  or  from  one  hun- 
dred, is  translated  and  explained.  It  is  will  to  intro- 
duce the  formal  study  of  percentage  with  numerous 
questions  in  mental  arithmetic  :  such  as,  — 

1.  Example:  If  you  lose  one  out  of  five  copper 
cents,  what  part  of  your  money  do  you  lose  ?      Answer, 


one-fifth.  P2xpress  it  on  the  scale  of  one  hundred,  or 
how  many  hundredths  is  that?  Answer,  twenty.  In 
order  to  make  this  still  clearer,  I  would  draw  a  line, 
divide  it  in  five  equal  parts,  and  shade  one  part.  Tlien 
I  would  divide  the  same  line  in  a  hundred  ecjual  parts, 
thus  showing  them  tliat  one-fifth  is  eipial  to  twenty 
hundredths  or  twenty  percent,  and  that  twenty  percent 
is  virtually  the  fractiini  one-fifth,  expressed  in  higher 
terms. 

"2.  Example  :  One-quarter  of  a 
pie  is  what  per  cent  of  the  pie? 
Draw  a  circle  representing  the  pie. 
divide  it  into  four  equal  parts. 
(Make  the  pie  large  enough  on 
the  board.)  Then  divide  e;ich 
fourth  into  twenty-five  ecjual  parts,  or  the  wliole  pie 
into  one  hundred,  thereby  showing  that  one-fourth  is 
equal  to  twenty-five  hundredths,  or  twent3'-five  per 
cent. 

3.  P^xample :     Ask,    if    fifteen    of    .sixty    sheep    are 
bitten  by  a  vicious  dog,  and  killed,  what  part  of  the 


192      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 


flock  is  killed?  Clearly,  one-fourth.  Now,  what  is 
onc-fourtli  of  one  hundred?  Answer,  twenty-five. 
Then  the  fanner  lost  twenty-five  out  of  one  hundred, 
or  twenty-five  per  cent. 

4.  Example  :  If  T  buy  a  v/atch  at  eighty  dollars, 
and  sell  it  for  one  hundred,  what  per  cent  do  I  gain? 
I  clearly  gain  one-fourth  of  what  I  paid  for  it,  but  one- 
fourth  of  one  hundred  is  twenty-five  ;  therefore,  I  gain 
twenty-five  of  one  hundred,  or  twentj'-five  per  cent. 

These  mental  questions  should  be  cpiite  numerous. 
In  order  to  facilitate  this,  I  have  resorted  to  the  follow- 
ing very  plain  device,  which  speaks  for  itself. 

(The  100  circle  is  the  stamlarJ  of  measurement.) 


A  UJTIIMKTir. 


193 


T  draw  this  fi<rtir('  on  tlic  Ixjnid,  and  tlion  ask  in 
quielv  succession  such  (inestions  as  :  — 

(rt)  What  is  five  per  cent  of  210?  of  110?  of  120? 
of  80?  of  20?  etc. 

{h)  Eight  is  five  per  cent  of  what?  10?  1?  1?  12? 
etc. 

(c)  Twenty  is  wliat  per  cent  of  200?  8  of  80?  etc. 

There  is  an  immense  number  of  questimis  for  mental 
drill  in  this  device. 


A    DEVICE,   NOT  A    METHOD. 

WiiKTiiER  what  I  am  going  to  desciil)e  in  this  article 
is  an  original  invention,  grown  on  home  soil,  or  not,  I 
do  not  venture  to  decide  ;  but  I  suspect  it  to  be.  At 
any  rate,  —  honoi'  to  whom  honor  is  due,  —  the  Ham- 
ilton schools  are  the  first  in  which  the  invention  was 
put  into  operation.  Hero  is  an  illustration  of  the 
device  which  will  aid  the  explanation.     It  is  called 

Nr.Mr.KATiox  noAiJi). 


,000CX300000 


oooooooooo 


The  board  is  used  in  the  first  and  second  years  of 
school.  It  consists  of  a  board  half  an  inch  thick, 
about  afoot  wide,  and  five  feet  long.  (Grooves  divide 
tlie  sui'face  of  the  ]»oard  into  fuin-  jiarls.  Tlic  p:ut  on 
the  right  contains  ten  small  holes,  each  just  huge 
enough  to  put  a  lead-pencil  in.      The  second  compiirt- 


194      KDU(JATIONAL    TOI'KJS   OF   Till':    DAY. 

ment  has  ten  holes,  each  of  which  is  large  enongli  to 
hold  a  bundle  of  ten  pencils.  The  next  compartment 
has  ten  holes,  each  of  which  is  large  enough  to  contain 
ten  bundles  of  ten,  or  one  hundred  each.  The  fourth 
compartment,  the  last  one  on  the  left,  contains  only 
one  hole,  but  large  enough  to  contain  ten  bundles  of 
one  hundred  each,  or  one  thousand.  This  illustrates, 
better  than  any  thing  yet  found,  the  process  of  numer- 
ation, and  we  use  it  thus  :  — 

The  board,  being  large  enough,  is  placed  before  the 
class,  where  it  is  easily  seen  by  all  the  pupils  ;  and  the 
teacher  has  a  sufficient  number  of  broom-corn  stalks, 
of  the  thickness  of  a  pencil,  about  six  inches  long. 
She  calls  upon  a  pupil  to  fill  the  ten  small  holes  on  the 
right.  When  that  is  done,  she  requires  these  ten  to  be 
taken  out,  bundled  together,  and  fastened  by  a  little 
rubber  band.  Then  the  bundle  is  placed  in  the  first 
hole  of  the  second  compartment.  This  making  of  ten 
is  continued  until  all  the  holes  of  the  tens  compart- 
ment are  filled.  In  order  to  break  the  monotony,  such 
exercises  as  :  Two  tens  are  equal  to  twenty,  or  are 
called  twenty ;  four  tens,  forty ;  nine  tens,  ninety ; 
how  many  tens  in  eighty?  in  fifty?  etc.,  may  be  wedged 
in.  Then  the  bundles  of  tens  are  treated  as  the  single 
stalks  were  treated;  namely,  made  into  bundles,  with 
which  the  holes  of  the  next  compartment  are  filled  ; 
and  lastly,  the  hundreds  are  gathered  up  to  make  one 
large  bundle  of  one  thousand. 

The  progress  which  the  children  make  in  learning  to 
numerate  is  astonishing.    After  the  figures  are  learned, 


ARITHMETIC.  195 

tlifir  relative  value,  by  virtue  of  position,  is  explained, 
first,  1)}'  using  naughts  to  fill  the  vacant  places,  and 
slowly  leading  on  to  the  fact  that  the  naugiits  are  not 
necessary  to  he  written,  and  why  not.  I  conlid'-ntly 
l»elieve  tliat  it  would  be  carrying  owls  to  Athens  and 
soot  to  rittsburgh,  to  go  into  a  more  minute  explana- 
tion concerning  the  manner  of  using  tliis  board  ;  for 
every  teacher  of  the  primary  grades  will  see  at  once 
the  value  and  utility  of  this  device. 

As  to  the  cost  of  the  board,  and  where  to  obtain  it, 
I  should  say,  "  Do  what  we  did."  "We  applied  to  a 
carpenter,  gave  him  the  dimensions  of  the  board  and 
the  size  of  the  holes,  by  furnishing  him  such  bundles 
as  would  have  to  fill  the  holes,  telling  him  to  make  the 
holes  just  large  enough  to  hold  the  single  stalks  and 
the  bundles  snugl}'.  The  board,  being  of  '•  half-inch 
stuff,"  is  very  cheap.  To  bore  the  holes  is  mere  play- 
woik,  and  many  a  teacher  who  is  skilful  with  joiners' 
tools  can  make  such  a  board  himself.  The  carpenter 
makes  it  for  from  thirty  to  fifty  cents,  according  to 
tlic  kind  of  wood  he  uses.  It  is  strong,  can  easily  be 
put  out  of  the  way  l\v  shoving  it  behind  the  wardrobe, 
and  is  light  enough  to  be  handled  with  ease.  Instead 
of  l)room-C()rn  stalks,  little  sticks  may  do.  provided,  of 
course,  they  are  of  the  same  thickness  anil  length. 

Adding  and  Subtirtcting.  — The  board  can  also  be  of 
great  use  in  illustrating  the  first  steps  in  addition  and 
subtraction,  within  the  compass  of  one  to  one  thou- 
sand.    For  instance  :  — 

The  first  case  iu  sulHraction,  in  which  each  diuit  of 


H»()      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'KJS   OF  THE    DAY. 


the  subtrahend  is  sinallor  tliiin  that  of  tlie  rniniiciul, 
exphiiiis  itself.  For  instance:  r)34  minus  213.  The 
second  case,  where  the  nnnibei-  of  units  or  tens  in  the 
subtrahend  is  greater  than  that  of  the  niiunend,  can  ])e 
beautifully  illustrated  by  loosening  a  bundle  of  the 
next  higher  order,  and  tiansf erring  the  loosened  objects 
to  the  next  conipartnient  to  the  right, — in  short,  untie 
a  bundle  of  ten  to  make  ten  units.     If  then  you  have 


oooool 


mi 


ooooooot 


a  minuend  like  the  one  in  the  cut  (oo-l),  place  under 
it  the  subtrahend  350.  Now,  it  is  evident  that  6  can- 
not be  taken  from  4,  and  theiefore  3'ou  take  a  bundle 
of  ten,  which,  together  with  the  four  loose  ones,  make 
fourteen  units.  From  this  six  can  be  easily  taken. 
Tliat  leaves  us  two  bundles  of  ten,  from  which  five 
tens  cannot  l)e  taken.  Again  we  proceed  as  before 
by  untying  a  bundle  of  the  next  higher  order,  and  so 
on  ad  iiifinUuni. 

We  are  not  selfish  here  in  Hamilton,  and  do  not 
proi)ose  to  patent  the  device.  We  offer  it  for  what  it 
is  worth  to  any  one  wdio  thinks  it  worth  trying.  Let 
him  try  it,  and  God  bless  him  for  his  enterprise  and 
good-will  to  his  pupils. 


Ah'ITlIMhTK.:  1117 

PRICE-LIST  OF   COMMODITIES  LY   THE 
SCIIOOLltOOM. 

Not  long  ago  I  saw  a  i)rol)k'iii  on  the  l)Iackl)oar(l, 
in  which  the  i)i'ice  of  a  cow  was  caUcd  foi-.  Several 
attending  circumstances  in  the  (jnesti(jn  made  the 
latter  rather  involved  ;  and  the  answer  to  the  problem 
proved  to  be,  "  Price  of  cow,  six  cents."  That  set 
me  to  thinking.  Thought  I,  "Is  it  right  to  thus 
coriu[)t  the  child's  conception  of  the  eternal  fitness 
of  things?"  1  suggested  to  the  teacher,  to  reserve  a 
si)ace  of  two  feet  square  on  her  very  S[)acious  black- 
board, head  it "  Price  List,"  and  enter  upon  this  space 
a  few  quotations  of  prices  of  connnodities,  such  as 
Hour,  butter,  eggs,  pork,  l)eef,  and  the  like,  and  in- 
duce the  pupils  to  consult  the  daily  i»a[)ers,  in  oixler 
to  suggest  changes  occasionally.  Thus,  for  instance, 
she  would  find  butter  (pioted  l)etween  twenty-live  and 
thirty-live  cents  a  pound  during  the  winter,  and  twelve 
and  a  half  to  fifteen  cents  in  the  summer.  She  would 
find  the  i)i'ice  of  Hour  per  bairel,  to  vary  between  four 
dollars  and  a  half  and  six  dollars,  as  sui)[)ly  and 
demand  dictated. 

This  would  be  an  indirect  way  of  giving  most  useful 
information  upon  subjects  intimately  connected  with 
the  deu)ands  of  afti'r-life.  It  would,  riiithcrmore, 
establish  a  valual)le  and  profitable  connection  between 
Ixjme  and  school.  Jt  would  make  teaching  rational 
and  practical.  It  would  o|)en  the  eyes  of  cliildr*Mi  to 
the   value    of    nioni-y  in  general,   and  that  of    certain 


198      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF   TIIK   DAY. 

coiniuoditics  in  particuhir.  It  would  enable  teacher 
and  pupils  to  make  original  i)roblems.  And  all  this, 
without  special  effort  and  waste  of  time.  It  would, 
so  to  speak,  link  the  school  and  its  daily  work,  with 
life  and  its  great  tasks  and  demands. 

I  was  a  young  boy  when  I  heard  one  of  the  greatest 
living  teachers  pronounce  this  truth:  '-Though  the 
ship  of  school  lies  at  anchor  in  the  harbor,  far  away 
from  the  turmoil  and  strife  of  life,  it  nevertheless  will 
be  heaved  and  rocked  by  the  ripples  which  are  caused 
by  the  great  waves  and  billows  in  the  open  sea."  Let 
us  be  practical.  The  problem  in  which  a  barrel  of 
flour  is  said  to  cost  five  dollars  can  aid  the  pupil  in 
acquiring  arithmetical  skill,  just  as  effectuall}'  as  one 
m  which  that  barrel  of  flour  is  quoted  at  five  cents, 
or  fifteen  cents,  or  seventj'-five  cents,  or  sixty-five 
dollars.  Lately,  I  took  occasion  to  inquire  into  the 
effect  of  the  procedure  su2:gested,  and  I  found  it  to  be 
very  beneficial.  I  found  that  one  problem  put  on  the 
board  served  as  a  model.  The  numbers  were  erased, 
and  others  were  substituted,  as  the  fluctuations  of  the 
market  dictated.  I  found  this  practice  in  use,  as 
low  as  the  fifth  school  year,  where  the  pupils  had  just 
learned  the  more  intricate  tables  of  denominate  num- 
bers. I  found  that  they  knew  the  current  prices  of 
various  kinds  of  coffee,  of  sugar,  rice,  cheese,  flour, 
and  the  like.  But  what  pleased  me  most  was  the 
deep  interest  shown  by  the  pupils  in  their  work  ;  for 
interest  acts  upon  the  learner,  like  sunshine  and 
moisture  upon  the  vegetable  germ  in  the  ground. 


AlilTlIMETlC.  199 

PR  IMA  RY  A  R I  Til  ME  TIC. 

In  every  branch  of  study  in  the  currieiihim,  knmd- 
edge  and  skill  arc  to  be  aimed  at,  particularly  in 
arithmetic.  ]My  idea  is,  tiiat  the  cliihh'cn  in  the 
h)\ver  and  lowest  grades  shoukl  gain  their  knowledge 
in  numbers  by  handling  objects.  To  the  young 
child,  six  and  four  mean  notliing,  but  six  pencils  and 
four  pencils,  balls,  sticks,  books,  papers,  etc.,  convey 
an  idea.  In  other  words,  things  should  come  before 
their  s3'mbols.  I  have,  therefore,  advised  the  fre- 
quent use  of  splints,  toothpicks,  lamplighters,  buttons, 
etc.,  which  are  put  into  the  hands  of  the  pupils  for 
the  purpose  of  making  aritlunetical  combinations  and 
operations  with  actual  ol)jects.  I  have  procured,  at 
a  broom- factory,  broom-corn  stalks,  all  cut  the  same 
size,  and  bundled  them  u[)  in  packages  of  ten  and  a 
hundred,  in  order  to  have  some  means  of  illustrating 
numeration.  The  teachers  of  the  lower  grades — , 
bright,  intelligent,  enthusiastic  young  ladies — have 
taken  up  the  idea,  and  procured  large  button-moidds, 
strung  them  on  wires,  and  fastened  tliein  on  tlie  toj) 
edge  of  each  pu[)irs  desk.  This  plan  works  like  a 
charm. 

I  am  i)n>i)ared  to  assert,  that,  when  children  who 
are  thus  taught  are  promoted  to  higher  grades,  they 
will  not  regard  arithmetic  as  a  dnidgery,  but  as  a 
delightful  occupation.  From  the  concrete  idea  of 
number,  they  are  unconsciously  led  to  (he  abstract 
idea.     And  so  every  brancli  of  study,  even   the  most 


200      EDUCATIONAL    TOl'KJS   OF  Till':    DAY. 

iil)stni(;t  liistoiy,  has  a  solid  stiatiini  of  concrete  knowl- 
edge, gained,  or  to  bo  gained,  by  sense  perception. 

But  there  is  a  wide  difference  between  knowing  a 
thing  and  applying  it,  between  knowledge  and  skill. 
Knowledge  resnlts  from  experience,  and  after  it  is 
gained  it  must  be  made  easily  availal)le  ])y  constant 
repetition,  A  child  learns  to  comjrrehend  the  multi- 
l)lication-table  by  doiiuj  (handling  objects)  ;  but  the 
memory  must  be  charged  with  the  table,  so  that  it  is 
ever  ready  for  use.  There  can  be  no  question  that  a 
child  may  learn  the  table  by  dry  routine-repetition  ; 
but  how  much  more  pleasant  it  is  so  to  learn  it,  that 
be  knows  what  he  is  saying  and  doing ! 

All  the  fundamental  processes  in  arithmetic  can  be 
illustrated  either  by  objects,  or,  when  the  numbers 
become  too  large,  by  sketches  drawn  on  the  board. 
I  must  not  indulge  in  enumerating  the  many  ways  in 
Avhich  this  method  may  be  carried  out :  space  and 
time  forbid. 

MISS   CELESTE'S  PENNFES. 

Miss  Celeste  jMourison,  teacher  in  the  Fourtii 
Ward  School,  Hamilton,  showed  us  one  day  how  she 
taught  arithmetic  to  little  ones.  They  could  make 
all  combinations  possible  with  numbers  up  to  seven  ; 
that  is,  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide.  They 
could  tell  how  many  twos,  threes,  there  are  in  six. 
Now  she  introduced  the  ntnnber  seven.  One  was 
added  to  tlie  six,  and  the  combinations  possible 
within  the  number  seven  were  then  treated.     The  point 


AUITIIMETW.  201 

brought  out  was,  that  a  reinaiiidcr  was  oV)tainecl  more 
fie(iiiciitly  than  with  any  number  below  seven.  The 
pupils  worked  with  objects,  —  buttons  strung  on  a  wire, 
broom-corn  stalks,  niarl)les,  pencils,  and  other  things. 

IJiit  the  brightest  feature  of  the  lesson  was  this : 
She  took  a  little  box,  in  which  she  had  a  numltor  of 
one-cent  pieces,  two-cent  pieces,  nickel  three-cent 
pieces,  nickel  five-cent  i)ieces  ;  and  then  followed  a 
series  of  questions,  the  answeis  of  which  had  to  l»e 
l^erformed,  not  only  told.  For  instance  :  How  many 
one-cent  pieces  will  make  seven?  The  child  took 
seven  one-cent  pieces  out  of  the  box,  and  then  said 
(always  speaking  in  complete  sentences),  *•'  Seven 
times  one  cent  are  seven  cents."  Question:  "^  How 
many  twos  in  seven?"  The  child  ijicked  up  three 
two-cent  pieces  and  a  single  cent,  saying,  "There  are 
three  twos  in  seven,  and  one  over."  Then  thiee-cent 
pieces  were  used  with  wliich  to  meosnre  seven.  Theie 
being  no  four-cent  i)ieces,  two  two-cent  pieces  had  to 
serve  in  this  case.  Then  u  five-cent  piece  was  ap[)lied 
in  measining  (dividing)  seven. 

Tliis  is  but  a  little,  insignificant  device  ;  but  to  see 
the  children  busily  engaged  in  this  manner,  seeing, 
doing,  and  then  telling  about  it,  is  a  i)leasure  of  no 
mean  character.  Much  attention  is  bestowed,  in  the 
l)rimary  grades  of  our  schools,  upon  s[)eaking  in  coni- 
l)lete,  well-rounded  sentences  ;  that  is,  giving  aii^wi'is 
which  embrace  the  (jUestions.  This  [)ractice  will 
inevitably  terminate  iu  the  habil  of  correct  si)eech 
ami  hxjical  si)eech. 


CHAPTER   AIL 

LITERATURE  AND   LANGUAGE. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

LITERATUEE   AND    LANaUAGE. 
THE   POET  SCHILLER. 

Oration  delivered  at  the  l'2oth  birt/iday  of  Friedrich  Schiller. 

Ladies  and  Gkntli:mi:n,  —  I  wus  culled  upon  to 
deliver  the  oration  of  the  day  in  English,  and  I  trust 
that  it  is  unnecessar}-  to  excuse  myself  for  speaking 
English  in  America.  The  founders  of  this  beautiful 
edifice  [Music  Hall,  in  Hamilton,  O.,]  the  meml)ers 
of  this  association,  call  themselves  ''  German-Ameri- 
cans," using  the  word  "  German  "  merely  as  an  adjec- 
tive, and  laying  stress  on  the  fact  of  their  l)eiiig 
Americans:  they  do  not  call  themselves  "  American- 
(Jermans."  This  remark,  I  rest  assured,  is  sutlicient 
to  explain  the  fact  that  tiie  oration  of  the  day  is  deliv- 
ered in  the  language  of  the  country. 

Men  who  love  the  good  and  the  beautiful,  and  li('l[) 
to  further  it,  are  worth}-  of  our  respect.  Men  who  are 
enabled  by  rare  talents  to  accomplish  extraordinary 
things,  be  this  in  the  domain  of  art.  or  science,  or 
inchistry,  and  who  api)ly  these  natural  gifts  for  the 
benefit  of  liumanity.  tlicn-liy  l»ecoming  I)enofactors  of 
their  fellow-b(!ings, — such  men  have  a  claim  upon  our 
gratitude,  and  we  are  intMally  obliged  to  show  that  we 


20G      EDUCATIONAL    TOi'ICS    OF   TlIK   DAY. 

csloem  them  and  viilue  tlieir  merits.  IMen,  however, 
who,  elevnted  and  supported  hy  their  godlil\e  genius, 
have,  as  it  were,  imprinted  upon  their  people  and  their 
era  their  own  signature  ;  have,  with  the  omnipotence 
of  their  words,  clianged  the  time  and  entire  realm  of 
thought  of  their  nation,  and  have  given  to  their  century 
a  nobler  idea  of  life  and  its  purposes  ;  men  who  speak 
from  out  of  their  graves  with  greater  eloquence  than 
our  contemporaries,  —  such  men  are  not  merely  es- 
teemed, they  are  admired,  loved,  worshijiped.  We 
simply  refuse  to  regard  them  dead.  The  birthday 
anniversary  of  such  a  man  it  is  that  we  celebrate 
to-day.  It  is  Friedrich  Schiller,  the  favorite  poet  of 
sixty-five  millions  of  German-speaking  people. 

I  must,  for  obvious  reasons,  refrain  from  narrating 
to  you  the  events  of  Schiller's  life.  An^-  history  of 
literature  will  furnish  you  the  desired  data.  It  is  my 
intention  to  detain  you  a  few  minutes  by  stating  the 
powerful  influence  of  Schiller  upon  his  own  and 
following  generations. 

So-called  wiseacres,  who  are  in  the  habit  of  looking 
back  into  the  past,  lamenting  the  fact  that  the  good, 
dear,  old  times  are  gone  forever,  are  apt  to  assert  with 
a  whining  tone  that  our  generation  is  wanting  in  poetic 
feeling  and  comprehension.  The  very  fact  that  eighty 
3'ears  after  Schiller's  death,  his  dramas  are  acted  upon 
this  stage,  four  thousand  miles  away  from  his  l)irth- 
place,  and  his  poems  are  studied  in  the  schools  of 
America,  proves  them  to  be  wrong.  The  same  people 
poutingly    turn     back    to    the    traditions    of    classic 


LiTEUATrin-:  axd  LANavAaE.  -iUT 

antiquit}',  and  find  satisfaction  in  pointing  out  to  us 
Scliillei's  frequent  references  to  niytliology.  They 
forget  that  Schiller  made  use  of  classic  forms  merely 
to  symbolically  represent  modern  ideas.  ^lodern  pro- 
gressive thought  has  constantly  to  light  with  such 
lovers  of  the  dead  past.  We  ask.  What  is  Hercules 
to  us?  Nothing  l)ut  a  symbolic  form  for  strength. 
What  is  Apollo  to  us?  Do  we  see  in  him  the  Grecian 
god?  No,  nothing  but  a  marvellously  perfect  and 
beautiful  man.  Representations  of  classic  antiquity 
may  be  praised  for  their  ideal  beauty,  and  most  of  them 
typify  thoughts.  They  have,  with  us,  lost  their  quality 
as  subjects;  they  have  become  attributes.  We  aie  not 
called  upon  to  believe  in  Grecian  or  Konian  deities. 
We  are  supremely  indifferent  to  them. 

And  is  not  belief,  is  not  faith,  is  not  conviction,  the 
very  essence  of  every  man's  life?  Shake  a  person's 
faith  and  convictions,  and  with  them  falls  his  whole 
life's  purpose.  AVe  have  every  reason  to  distrust  men 
who  have  no  convictions,  but  only  interests.  The 
(iernuuis  owe  it  among  others  to  Schiller,  that  they 
are  a  nation  with  lofty  ideals,  firm  convictions,  intense 
faith,  and  strong  belief. 

We  modern  people  believe  in  man's  eternal  rights, 
in  freedom  of  thought  and  action,  in  the  harmonious 
development  of  the  race,  in  the  everlasting  and  unshak- 
able laws  of  nature,  in  the  moral  foundation  of  state 
and  society,  in  social  equality,  and  pure  justice.  Give 
us,  ye  sculptors,  the  defenders  of  ecpial  rights  in  bron/e 
and    marble.     Erect    monuments    for  the    heroes  who 


208      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DAY. 

fought  for  liheity  of  thought  and  action.  Paint,  yc 
artists,  the  statesmen  who  founded  our  modern  states 
upon  the  basis  of  social  equality  and  im[)artial  justice. 
Exalt  llie  men  who  sacrificed  tiuMnselves  in  wi'estling 
with  Nature  till  she  revealed  her  secrets.  Let  us 
praise  and  exalt  the  thinkers  who  found  the  causal 
iiexdn  between  Nature's  mar\'ellous  laws  and  man's 
varied  actions.  Sing,  ye  poets,  of  the  spiritual  heroes 
who  gave  to  posterity-  ideals  of  beauty  and  truth. 
These  are  the  saints  of  modern  times  and  the  living 
generation.  To  these  latter-day  saints  we  look  up  in 
dark  and  gloomy  times.  From  tliem  we  derive  our 
strength  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  spirits  of  dark- 
ness. And  when  scul[)tors,  painters,  poets,  and  authors 
glorify  our  real  heroes,  Schiller's  form  will  stand  among 
them  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  great. 

Looking  back  upon  Schiller  and  his  era,  I  cannot 
refrain  from  mentioning  a  curious  fact,  which  will  tell 
you  more  than  a  lecture  of  two  hours'  duration.  It  is 
this  :  — 

Maj-  I  ask :  When  did  Shakspeare's  wonderful 
genius  ilhnninate  the  English  world,  of  intelligence 
and  poetr}'?  It  was  when  the  wars  between  the  red 
and  white  roses  had  terminated  ;  when,  after  the  de- 
struction of  the  Spanish  Armada,  England  had  beco^me 
the  ruler  of  the  sea ;  when,  under  the  gentle  but  firm 
swa}^  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  England  had  reached  the 
summit  of  greatness  and  political  development,  —  then 
it  was  that  this  marvellous  poetic  genius  of  England 
bloomed   forth,  a  genius  whose  greatness  it  took  the 


LITERATURE  AXD   LANGUAGE.  209 

world  almost  three  luiiidre'l  3-ears  to  coinprelu'iid. 
Again :  When  was  it  that  Coraeille,  Moliere,  and 
Kaeine,  Voltaire  and  Ronssean,  charmed  the  world 
of  thought  with  their  classic  productions,  with  [wetry 
and  pliilos()i)hy  ?  It  was  when  Louis  XI\'.  and  Louis 
W .  reigned  over  France ;  when  France  was  at  its 
highest ;  when  the  I'rench  armies  had  i)een  victorious 
on  the  Continent,  and  France  had  reached  the  pinnacle 
of  glory.  Again  :  When  did  the  classic  epoch  of 
Spanish  literature  occur,  or  that  of  Italy?  Again  the 
same  answer  comes  :  It  alwa\s  followed  a  period  of 
the  greatest  national  glory. 

And  now  we  ask  :  When  did  Schiller  live?  During 
the  second  half  of  the  last  centiuy,  when  the  political 
life  of  (Jennany  was  huniljled  into  the  dust,  ()artly 
l)y  foreign  poweis,  partly  i)y  the  sellish  individual 
interests  of  over  three  hundred  home-sovereigns ; 
when  all  national  life  seemed  petrified  ;  when  Napo- 
leon I.  rode  lough-shod  over  all  that  was  dear  to  the 
Germans,  and  ail  that  had  remained  of  their  political 
independence.  Schiller  lived  and  composed  during 
the  miduight-hour  of  German  history. 

Compare  these  facts,  verified  by  every  —  even  the 
smallest  —  text-book  of  history,  and  then  listen  to 
tlu'SO  conclusions.  AVIiile  in  every  other  nation,  the 
poets  basked  in  the  sunshine  of  the  political  greatness 
and  splemlor  of  their  nation,  and  glorided  their  coun- 
try's grand  deeds,  il  fi'U  to  the  lot  of  Sciiillcr  to  act  as 
a  prophet  in  Israel  :  to  stir  up  the  i)eople  to  deeds,  to 
arouse    the     &leei)ing    energy,    to    awaken     anew    the 


210      EDUCATIONAL   TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

crushed  sense  of  i)atriotism,  and  spur  to  efforts  npon 
all  dorniiins  of  activity  the  kitent  powers  of  tiie 
nation. 

This  idea  must  be  borne  in  mind  when  viewing 
Schiller,  the  prophet  of  the  German  nation, 

Goethe,  in  his  funeral  oration  at  Scliiller's  tomb, 
said,  "He  lived  as  a  man,  and  as  a  mature  man  he 
departed  from  us.  In  tliat  form  in  which  one  leaves 
the  eaith,  he  still  lives  and  moves  for  us  in  the  world 
of  spirits.  Achilles  is,  for  us,  still  present  as  an  ever- 
striving  youth.  That  Schiller  went  away  early,  is  for 
us  also  a  gain.  From  his  tomb  there  comes  to  us  an 
impulse,  strengthening  us  as  with  the  breath  of  his 
own  might,  and  awakening  a  most  earnest  longing  to 
fulfil  lovingly,  and  more  and  more,  the  work  that  he 
began.  So,  in  all  that  he  willed  to  do,  and  in  all  that 
he  fulfilled,  he  shall  live  on  forever,  for  his  nation  and 
for  mankind." 

In  this  Olympic  funeral  oration,  Goethe  happily 
expressed  the  characteristic  features  of  Schiller's 
influence,  the  very  essence  of  Schiller,  as  we  know 
him.  I  mean  his  everlasting  3'outh,  which  never  loses 
the  strength  to  beget  grand  deeds.  What  other  effect 
can  it  have,  than  to  infuse  into  the  young  generation 
enthusiasm  of  the  purest  kind,  when  they  hear  his 
hero  say,  — 

"  The  land  is  om's.  it  is  our  own  creation! 
B3'  our  own  labor,  ay,  by  a  thousand  claims, 
The  land  is  ours  forever!    Shall  we  bear  it. 
That  this  the  emissary  of  a  foreign  lord 


LITEUATUnE   A.\1)   LAMiVACE.  211 

Shall  here  insult  us  on  our  own  free  soil  ? 

Is  there  no  help  for  us  ?    ^lust  we,  then,  bear  it  ? 

No  !  there's  a  limit  to  the  tyrant's  power. 

When  men,  oppressed,  can  find  no  aid  on  earth 

To  rid  them  of  their  burden,  then  they  rise  ! 

The  people  rise  ;  they  stretch  their  hands  to  heaven, 

And  thence  fetch  down  their  old  eternal  rights. 

There  shining  in  the  heavens,  unchangeable, 

Imperishable  as  the  stars  themselves. 

Then  Nature's  own  primeval  rule  returns; 

Man  stands  in  battle,  ready  for  the  foe. 

'Tis  our  last  means;  but  when  others  fail. 

We  draw  the  sword  I    The  best  of  all  life's  boons 

We  will  defend.     In  front  of  this  our  land, 

And  of  our  wives  and  children,  we  will  standi  " 

Tlie  poetic  creations  of  \cv\  few  select  authors, 
possess  this  never-aging  charm.  They  stand  at  the 
entrance  of  new  ei)oc[is,  and  formulate  with  prophetic 
eyes  the  highest  aims  and  i>ur[i»)ses  fur  centuries  and 
centuries.  These  rare  minds  are  the  true  heroes  of 
mankind,  because  they  arc  its  educators.  Such  a  hero 
was  .Schiller.  One  may  assert  without  presumption,  » 
says  a  CJerman  authority,  that  never  since  Homer  had 
arisen  another  poet  who  was  so  much  of  an  educator 
of  his  people.  To  him,  who  had  risen  with  such 
nni'xanipled  energy  from  the  most  uniuly  natuiali^ui 
to  the  most  ideal  artistic  form,  I  say,  lo  him  the 
younger  generation  in  Ciermany,  ever  since  the  ap- 
j)earance  of  *•  Wallensleiii,"  has  looked  up  as  to  a 
being  of  higlirr.  nobler  kind.  Departing,  he  left  as 
a    valuable    iiiherilauce     •'  Wilhelm     Tell,"    a     iliama 


212      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE  DAY. 

which  has  proven  of  more  thuii  mere  literary  impor- 
tance. During  the  days  of  doom,  when  Napoleon's 
policy  was  aimed  at  the  annihilation  of  Germany,  and 
seemed  to  be  destined  to  be  crowned  with  success  ;  at 
a  time  when  a  patriot  like  Stein  could  not  find  a  square 
foot  of  German  soil  to  stand  on  ;  at  a  time  when  a 
poet  of  great  promise,  a  man  of  genius  and  heart, 
Heiniich  von  Kleist,  preferred  suicide  to  a  life  of 
national  misery  and  unutterable  humiliation  ;  at  a  time 
when  Germans  were  obliged  to  fight  against  Germans 
like  bands  of  gladiators,  and  feitilized  the  soil  of  all 
the  countries,  from  the  Tajo  to  the  Volga,  with  their 
blood,  —  it  was  at  this  time  of  oppression,  misery, 
and  disgrace,  that  the  Germans  found  consolation 
in  '^Tell." 

Their  patriotic  feeling,  their  energy,  their  courage, 
their  hatred  of  tj'ranuy,  were  kindh'd.  and  henceforth 
asserted  themselves.  For  a  person  who  has  eyes  to 
see,  Schiller's  name  is  found  on  every  page  of  that 
proud  history  of  war,  which  began  at  the  Katzbach, 
and  terminated  at  Waterloo.  Even  to-day,  Schiller's 
words  as  found  in  "•  Tell"  are  the  catch- words  in  the 
great  drama  of  life ;  and  wherever  great  deeds  are 
done  b}'  Germans,  3'ou  will  find  the  secret  motives 
happily  expressed  in  words  of  Schiller.  For,  I  repeat 
it,  it  is  the  power  of  youth,  which,  never  dying,  never 
loses  the  ability  to  engender  deeds. 

Great  as  Schiller  was  in  the  dramatic  art,  he  was 
equally  great  as  a  lyric  poet.  No  German  poet  since 
Schiller  has  equalled  his  magnificent  rhythm  and  rhet- 


LITER ArU RE  AND   LANGUAGE.  218 

oric.  The  language  lias  l)een  made  sweeter,  clearer, 
more  flexible ;  it  has  been  forced  to  rellect  tlie 
manner  of  many  new  minds  :  yet  in  the  qualities  I 
mentioned,  rhythm  and  rhetoric,  Schiller  is  still  the 
climax  of  performance.  The  tenderest  strains,  the 
most  beantiful  harmonious  verses,  ever  composed  iu 
German,  are  Schiller's.  A  few  metric  translations 
may  prove  this  :  — 

"  The  minds  of  men,  in  a  porpetnal  strife, 
Kevolve  from  age  to  age,  ami  fiml  no  rest; 
While  Nature,  in  unfailing  youth  and  beauty, 
Obeys  one  everlasting  law  of  duty. 
Upon  her  constant  bosom,  ever  green, 
Beneath  her  sky  of  never-fading  blue, 
Lived  all  the  generations  who  have  bcon, 
And  still  her  children  find  her  fresh  and  new. 
And  the  same  sun,  that  o'er  some  Grecian  hill 
Homer  beheld,  is  shining  on  us  still." 

And  now.  after  having  seen  how  lovingly  his  eye 
rests  on  mother  Nature,  listen  to  this  description  of 
the  heavens. 

"  ELYSIUM. 

"  Gone  is  the  wail  and  the  torture  ! 
Elysium's  banquets  of  rapture 
Chase  every  shadow  of  woe  ! 
Elysium  seeing 

Endless  the  bliss  and  endless  the  being. 
As  musical  brooks  through  the  meadows  that  flow. 
May  is  eternal. 

Over  the  vernal  landscape  of  youth: 
The  hours  i)ring  Koldcii  dreams  in  their  races, 
The  soul  is  expanded  through  infinite  spaces. 


214      EIJUCATIOXAL    TOPICS   OF   THE  DAV. 

The  voil  is  torn  from  tlie  visage  of  Truth. 
Here,  never  a  morrow 
The  heart's  full  rapture  can  hlight; 
Even  a  name  is  wanting  to  sorrow, 
And  pain  is  only  a  gentler  delight." 

Can  any  thing  l^e  more  beautiful  than  this  descrip- 
tion of  the  heavens,  where  "  even  a  name  is  wanting 
to  sorrow,  and  pain  is  only  a  gentler  delight  "  ? 

The  real  value  and  the  innnense  circumference  of 
Schiller's  genius  cannot  be  fully  understood  until  we 
approach  it  with  mature  mind.  The  man,  who,  ripe 
in  mind  and  judgment,  returns  to  Scliiller's  works, 
will  soon  admire  and  love  him.  All  his  lofty  words, 
which  sound  and  re-echo  in  our  ears  like  sweet  remem- 
brances of  youth,  assume  shape  and  form,  and  grow 
in  importance.  Schiller  not  only  proposed  the  educa- 
tion of  his  people  to  idealism,  but  he  actually  began  it 
by  his  poetic  creations.  He  gave  his  nation,  he  gave 
to  humanity,  a  loftier  ideal  of  l)eaut3',  greatness,  truth, 
and  justice.  When  Goethe  said  with  pride,  "He  was 
ours,"  we* are  justified  in  saying,  "  He  still  is  ours." 

Ma}-  our  German-American  youth  stud}'  Schiller, 
and  may  the  sublime  ideas  of  this  wonderful  poet 
find  their  way  into  their  imaginations  and  their  hearts, 
and  there  create  that  hmging  for  purity  in  thought  and 
action,  which  alone  will  lift  them  to  a  higher  level  of 
existence.  It  will  not  make  the  young  generation  any 
less  American  than  it  is  ;  for  beauty,  truth,  and  virtue 
are  not  national,  but  belong  to  mankind  and  the  whole 
world.     And  old  men,  covered  with   the  mimic  snow 


LITERATUUE   AND   LAXGUAGE.  215 

of  age,  may  t\\oy  again  turn  to  tlio  dusty  vohimos  of 
Schiller's  works,  ami  read  of  his  propluries  and  far- 
reaching  truisms,  and  they  will  (ind  consolation  for 
the  rest  of  their  lives.  It  is  not  the  dead  that  speaks 
to  us:  it  is  the  immortal  spirit  of  Germany's  greatest 
poet.  And  as  we  are  here  assembled  to  commemorate 
the  event  of  his  birth,  let  us  resolve  to  keep  his  mem- 
ory alive,  and  refuse  to  regard  him  dead. 

A   PERTINENT  QUESTION. 

AN    ADDRESS. 

Why  is  it  that  native  Americans,  as  well  as  English- 
men, tiud  it  so  extremely  ditficult  to  acquire  another 
language?  I  do  not  mean,  learning  to  handle  a  few 
words  or  phrases,  such  as,  "  Je  ne  le  sais  pas," 
"Bon  jour,"  "  Ausgespielt,"  "  Wie  geht's?"  or 
"  Nix  kumm  'raus,"  and  the  like,  iuit  n-ally  accpiire 
thorough  knowledge  of  another  language,  body  and 
soul,  idiom  and  all,  and  use  it  conveniently  in  rapid 
conversation.  Why  is  it?  Some  have  said,  the 
tendency  to  "show  and  glittering  results"  prevents 
the  American  people  from  employing  the  necessary 
hard  labor  and  study  which  are  requisites  of  linguistic 
study.  But  I  do  not  believe  this  ;  for  in  other  direc- 
tions the  mixture  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Norman 
races  shows  a  zeal  and  perseverance  that  far  out- 
shine those  of  other  nations. 

Why  is  it,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  Russians, 
in   fact  all  Slavic  races,  of  whom  wv  know  that  they 


216      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DAY. 

lack  the  culture,  refinement,  and  liigh  degree  of 
intelligence,  which  adorn  the  Germanic  and  Romanic 
races,  —  why  is  it  that  they,  of  all  European  nations, 
learn  other  idioms  most  easily,  nay,  with  fabulous 
ease  and  accuracy?  Why  is  it,  that  the  Germans, 
second  in  rank,  have  such  a  prominent  linguistic 
talent? 

There  have  been  scores  of  answers  to  this  question, 
one  even  more  absurd  than  the  other.  I  will  not 
repeat  them.  The  answer  I  wish  to  give,  I  believe, 
comes  nearer  the  truth  than  most  others  that  I  have 
heard.  It  was  suggested  to  me  by  a  gentleman  who 
is  in  the  enviable  possession  of  seven  languages,  all 
of  which  he  speaks  with  ease  and  accuracy.  It  is 
this  :  — 

Every  one  whose  mother  tongue  is  difficult  to  learn 
and  to  use,  on  account  of  its  wealth  of  forms,  that  is. 
of  different  forms  of  inflection,  and  for  other  reasons, 
will  necessaril}'  acquire  a  linguistic  training  in  earlj' 
youth,  which  will  enable  him  to  grasp  other  idioms 
without  great  efforts.  Let  us  briefly  consider  a  few 
points :  pronunciation,  syntax,  and  inflection.  Slavic 
languages  have  sounds,  and  combinations  of  sounds, 
that  make  Englishmen  and  native  Americans  fairly 
quiver  when  hearing  them  pronounced.  If  the  latter 
be  called  upon  to  repeat  a  Russian,  Bohemian,  or 
Magyaric  sentence,  he  simply  calls  it  an  outrage  to 
his  smooth  and  well-polished  PLnglish  tongue.  I 
have  particular  reference  to  the  consonants  of  these 
lau2:uasj;es. 


LITERATURE  AND   LANGVACIE.  217 

We  find  it  imtuial  tluit  pi-ople  like  the  Russians 
find  little  dinieulty  in  pi-Diiouneinsj;  the  eoniparalively 
eiisy  consonants  of  the  English  langnuge,  —  save  the 
slipi)cry  tli^  which  is  too  much  even  for  a  Kussian. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Russians  lind  it  dillieult  to 
pronounce  the  English  vowels.  For  English  is  very 
rich  in  vowels.  Where  other  languages  have  but  one 
a,  and  only  varying  it  in  length,  —  a/i,  and  o, — the 
English  language  has  as  many  as  seveu,  and  so  on 
with  the  remainder.  How  much  inHuence  this  fact 
has  upon  an  American  in  learning  (Jerraan,  you  can 
observe  by  the  pronunciation  of  a  word  like  '*  dcDike." 
By  some  mysterious  process,  it  becomes  "donkey." 
As  we  know  of  i)eople  who  are  color-blind,  I  think 
there  must  be  people  who  are  deaf  to  certain 
sounds. 

Take  the  eas>'  English  syntax.  Why,  you  may 
begin  a  sentence  in  English,  and  hardly  know  how  to 
construct  it  to  give  full  expression  to  your  thought; 
you  may  be  sure  you  will  reach  the  end  conveniently, 
without  being  obliged  to  repeat  parts  of  it.  This  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  most  excellent  rule  :  Place  the  verb 
as  near  the  subject  as  you  can, — a  rule  of  which 
almost  the  ojjposite  is  true  in  German.  Here  is  an 
exanipK'.  .While  in  English  you  say,  ''  ]Mis.  Hall 
would  be  pleased  to  see  Mr.  York  at  her  residence 
to-morrow  afternoon,  if  possible,  immediately  after 
services,"  this  would  have  to  be  rendered  in  (Tcrinan 
construction:  *' Mrs.  Hall  would  be  pleased  'Sir.  York 
to-morrow  afternoon  at  her  residence,  iC  i)ossible,  after 


218      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAW 

services,  to  see."  And  this  is  not  a  very  complex 
cxaiii[)le. 

You  will  easily  see,  how  much  more  complicated  the 
arrangement  of  the  members  of  a  sentence  must  be  in 
consequence  of  this  requirement :  In  case  a  compound 
tense  is  used,  the  participle  or  infinitive  must  come  last 
in  the  sentence.  It  necessitates,  that  the  speaker  must 
think  the  whole  sentence  over,  before  he  begins  it ;  or 
that,  if  he  begins  it  before  it  is  completely  developed  in 
his  mind,  he  must  bear  in  mind  the  detached  part  of 
his  verb,  and  utter  it  when  its  time  comes.  In  Eng- 
lish 30U  may  well  afford  to  begin  expressing  your 
sentence  before  you  have  fully  developed  it.  It  is 
like  putting  up  a  frame  building  :  first  put  up  your 
joists  and  scantling,  then  clapboards,  siding,  sills,  etc. 
First  put  up  subject  and  predicate,  the  maiu  element 
of  a  sentence,  and  then  attach  as  man^-  phrases  and 
clauses  for  ornament's  sake  as  you  like. 

This  makes  speaking  easy,  and  this,  too,  is  one  rea- 
son why  England  and  America  have  so  manj'  world- 
renowned  orators.  Now,  it  has  been  alleged,  that  what 
is  said  in  such  a  convenient  language  could  not  be  so 
profound  as  that  which  had  to  struggle  hard  to  come 
to  light.  We  find  this  to  be  untrue  if  we  consider  the 
well-known  fact,  that  one  of  the  few  creative  geniuses 
of  the  world,  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all,  Shakspeare, 
spoke  no  other  language  than  his  exquisite,  homespun 
English. 

But  the  convenience  the  English  language  affords 
will  unquestionably  be  the  reason  of  its  spreading  over 


LITEUATVRE  AXD   LAXGUAGE.  219 

moi'e  and  more  ground,  and  in  some  future  time  be- 
coming the  language  of  the  glc^be.  For,  the  very 
qualities  which  the  i)hilologist  of  to-day  may  consider 
defects,  will  prove  to  be  advantages  over  all  other 
languages. 

If  English  could  only  be  freed  of  its  outragcons 
ortiiograpliy,  almost  every  thing  else  in  English  is  easy  ; 
and  this  very  fact  proves  my  argument  to  be  correct. 
For  the  German,  even  if  he  be  a  thorough  scholar,  will 
find  English  spelling  a  stumbling-block.  The  English- 
man and  native  American,  on  the  other  hand,  will  ever 
find  Gei man  spelling  of  trifling  difficulty  ;  for  the  Ger- 
mans write,  with  a  few  insignificant  exceptions,  what 
they  pronounce.  German  is  very  nearly  a  phonic 
language. 

The  most  important  branch  of  German  grammar, 
however,  is  not  pronunciation,  uor  is  it  orthography, 
nor  even  syntax.  It  is  etymology,  or,  as  I  will  term 
it  here,  inflection.  This  is  really  the  stumbling-block, 
not  onh'  of  non-Germau-si)eaking  students,  but  even 
of  the  Germans  themselves.  While  there  are  in  thou- 
sands of  nouns  in  German  four  distinct  cases,  expressed 
by  a  shading  of  the  word  in  each  particular  case,  there 
are  no  cases  at  all  in  English  nouns,  for  the  posses- 
sive s  is  cunningly  separated  from  the  word  b}-  an 
apostrophe.  You  say,  '•  the  man,  of  the  man,  to  the 
man,  and  the  man,"  —  it  remains  man^  in  whatever 
case  3'ou  may  use  it ;  while  in  German  it  is  "  dcr  Munn^ 
des  Mannes,  dem  Manne^  den  Mmm,  die  Miinner,  dtr 
Manner,  den  Miiioieni,  die  Miinner." 


220      EBUCATJONAL    TOPICS.    OF  THE  DAY. 

Fiiillicniioic,  ill  Clennan  not  oiil\-  nouns  aro  (leolincd, 
but  luljectivc's,  every  unaginal)le  kind  of  pitMioiiiis, 
articles,  nay  even  some  numerals.  In  English  all 
these  things  are  more  or  less  omitted.  Did  you  ever 
think  how  dilfieult  it  would  be,  if  in  Englisli  yon 
had  to  var}'  the  forms  of  the  adjective  before  the 
noun?  I  could  easily  imagine  3'oui'  disgust  if  you  had 
to  do  it.  Let  us  tr}"  it.  You  have  to  drink  cohlcH 
tuater,  to  bathe  in  coldem,  7vater,  to  admire  the  fresh- 
ness of  colden  toaters,  and  admit  tliat  coldes  ivater  is  the 
best  beverage. 

Or,  su})posc  yon  were  obliged,  in  speaking  English, 
to  decline  all  the  pronominal  adjectives.  You  would 
have  to  have  as  many  forms  of  the  possessive  pro- 
nouns as  the  Germans,  namely,  thirty-two,  where  now 
you  have  eight.  Or,  think  for  a  moment  of  the  class 
which  the  chapter  of  gender  affords  the  observing  eye  ; 
a  chapter  which  is  the  most  unruly  you  can  think  of. 
Thank  your  stars  that  you  have  nothing  to  compare 
with  it ! 

Or,  please,  imagine  for  a  moment,  j'ou  were  to  follow 
up  the  German  conjugation  to  its  fullest  extent.  Sup- 
pose that  3'ou  would  have  to  say,  in  conjugating 
"  may,"  for  instance,  "•  I  ma}',  I  might,  I  have  might, 
I  had  might,  I  shall  may,  I  shall  have  might."  And 
now  the  subjunctive:  ''  I  maye,  I  mighte,  1  may  have 
might,  I  might  have  might,  I  shall  maye,  I  shall  have 
might."  This,  of  course,  is  all  conjecture.  Don't 
you  think  j'ou  have  every  reason  to  be  thankful  for 
not    being    obliged    to    do    so?      German    etymology 


LlTEUATniE   ANT)   LANGUAO'K.  221 

filonc  is  enough  to  fiigliteii  tlu'  adult  stutU'iit  rioin 
stiidying  it. 

AVhctlier  it  is  pivfoiTil)]('  to  liavo  so  inaiiy  differont 
forms  for  one  word,  wlictlier  tliis  will  promote  think- 
ing, I  will  leave  out  of  consideration  here.  liiit  it  is 
a  fact,  that  a  great  deal  of  talent,  skill,  study,  and 
exercise  is  needed  to  master  all  these  ni;iiiy  liillicnlties. 
The  child  whose  inother-tongiie  is  so  diliicult,  as  I  have 
stated,  trains  its  mental  faculties,  or  rather,  its  linguis- 
tic faculties,  by  trying  to  master  these  dilliculties. 

I  ain  inclined  to  think  that  this  struggling  with  the 
language  is  heli)ing  the  mind  in  its  develoiiment  won- 
deifnll^-.  ])ut  this  assistance  is  denied  the  F^nglish- 
speaking  child.  It  grows  u[),  stringing  its  words 
together  like  beads,  or  rather,  building  its  sentences 
of  unhewn  stones,  which  (»]uccr  enough)  always  fit; 
Avhih'  the  (icrman-speaking  cliild  is  obliged  to  hew  and 
fit  the  blocks  before  using  them. 

It  is  unquestionable,  that  linguistic  talent  is  not 
developed  where  it  is  not  exercised.  We  neeil  not 
go  to  Darwin  to  hear  that  a  talent,  once  strongly 
exjjressed  in  a  minority  of  the  race,  seems  to  grow, 
till  in  the  course  of  several  centuries  it  becomes  at  last 
a  striking  feature  of  the  nation.  Nay,  in  our  own 
families  we  can  remember  incidents  that  bear  witness 
to  the  truth  of  this  natural  law. 

In  short,  whoever  has  a  diliicult.  finely  organizi'd 
mollu'r-tongnc.  and  has  Ix-eii  su<-cessrul  in  masti'ring 
il  (I  mean  to  ,sa>' this  in  Il.alics  :  vJni  Ikis  hi-rn  sncn'ss- 
f(d  ill  viasteri)i(j  il),  will  lind,  it  costs  him  almost  no 


222      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

effort  to  learn  another  idiom,  and  even  two  or  three  ; 
and  wherever  tlie  mother-tongue  fhitly  denies  early 
linguistic  training,  there  the  learning  of  another  idi<;m 
is  (especially  in  later  years)  a  task  beyond  the  strength 
of  the  one  who  undertakes  to  perform  it.  Do  you 
know  of  a  grown  person  who  learned  a  second  lan- 
guage after  his  twenty-fifth  year  of  age?  He  may 
have  learned  a  little  of  it,  but  he  certainly  did  not 
master  it. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  annoy  the  reader  with  many 
conclusions  that  may  be  drawn  from  these  statements, 
—  only  one.  If  children  of  English-speaking  parents 
(I  do  not  say  American  parents,  for  that  term  covers 
many  more)  are  to  study  German,  let  them  begin  when 
young. 

I  might  stop  here,  but  it  occurred  to  me,  3'ou  might 
probably  ask.  If  the  Germans  are  reall}'  so  much  of 
a  linguistic  people,  why  is  it  that  so  many  Germans 
in  this  countr}'  will,  for  instance,  ask  you  to  take  a  seat 
on  the  fire  ;  or  tell  you  it  is  five  minutes  behind  twelve 
o'clock;  or  assert  that  one  thing  is  quite  "extinct" 
from  another ;  or  pronounce  the  smooth  and  beautiful 
sound  th  as  harsh  as  a  tt  ? 

There  are  two  answers  to  this  query:  (1)  They 
began  too  late,  after  the  organs  of  speech  had  lost 
their  pliabilit}^  after  the  mind  had  developed  so  many 
other  talents,  that  the  linguistic  germ  had  been  stifled  ; 
after  their  memory  had  grown  strong  in  retaining  other 
matters,  and  had  become  unfit  for  retaining  linguistic 
matter.      (2)  They  are  not  successful  in  learning  Eng- 


LITERATrUE   AM)   LAXaUAGE.  22o 

lish,  because  they  never  intistcred  tljeir  own  (German) 
language.  I  have  tried  to  demonstrate  how  enormous 
the  number  of  dilliculties  is,  that  are  to  be  surmounted. 
They  come  with  no  other  instruction  tlian  tlial  which 
a  village  or  country  school  can  afford  them,  and  besides 
speak  their  simple  and  uninttected  dialect,  instead 
of  the  linely  organized  High  German  (jf  tlie  educated 
classes  of  society.  The  German  who  never  mastered 
his  own  language  fully,  of  course,  must  be  left  out 
of  consideration. 

GERMAN  lY   THE   SCHOOLS. 

Ix  many  places  in  the  West,  German  is  taught  in 
thL'  lower  schools.  Being  called  upon  to  express  n)y 
opinion  on  the  question  why  that  s^hould  be  done,  I 
answered  as  follows  :  — 

I  cannot  refrain  from  alluding  to  an  oltjection  which 
is  often  laised  to  the  introduction  of  German  in  the 
public  schools.  It  is  said,  that  this  is  America ;  that 
the  national  language  is  the  P^nglish  language,  and 
that  it  should  be  the  language  of  the  whole  people; 
that  the  duty  of  the  German  people  is  to  learn  the 
English  language,  etc.  These  assertions  are  not  men- 
tioned here  that  they  may  be  controverted.  No  one 
thinks  of  denying  them.  Still  we  cannot  say  of  the 
people  of  America  as  yet,  that  it  is  a  homogeneous 
natit)u.  One  of  tlie  greatest  American  writers  says, 
"  Tlie  American  composite  character  betrays  its  mixed 
origin  ;  every  thing  American  is  a  fusion  of  distant 
and  antagonistic  elements.     The  language  is  mixed  ; 


224      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DAY. 

the  cnrreiits  of  thought  are  as  cosraopolitic  as  are  the 
elements  of  its  people." 

However,  that  need  not  concern  ns.  We  grant  that 
the  English  langnage  shonld  be,  if  it  is  not  as  yet,,  the 
national  language.  But  because  it  is  the  social  and 
political  dut}-  that  immigrants  should  learn  this  lan- 
guage as  soon  as  possible  after  their  arrival  on  the 
shores  of  America,  because  it  should  be  taught  to 
the  children  as  the  language  of  their  country,  seems 
to  be  no  reason  why  the  attention  of  our  schools  should 
be  confined  exclusively  to  it.  There  is  an  education, 
development  of  mind,  and  discipline  of  the  intellect, 
in  the  study  of  a  foreign  language,  which  we  ought 
to  covet  for  our  children,  if  it  can  be  had  by  any 
justifiable  means. 

"Among  the  modern  languages,"  says  Dr.  Rickoflf, 
"there  is  no  other  one  that  can  be  studied  with  so 
great  a  profit  b}^  the  English-speaking  child.  German 
would  be  chosen  by  the  philologist  as  shedding  most 
light  on  the  formation,  force,  and  use  of  our  own,  the 
English.  It  would  be  chosen  b}'  the  scientist  as  con- 
taining the  richest  treasures  accumulated  by  the  study 
and  research  of  man.  Furthermore,  it  is  immediatelj' 
available  in  the  business  intercourse  of  large  masses 
of  people,  in  the  social  intercourse  of  the  German 
people  among  themselves,  and  between  German  par- 
ents and  their  cliildieu.  Finall}',  inasmuch  as  the 
German  people  are  to  be  found  at  the  great  centres 
of  population  in  vast  numbers,  and  inasmuch  as  then- 
number  is   destined  to   increase    infinitely,   and    inas- 


LITEUATVUE  AM)   J.ANnVACE.  225 

much  as  their  chiUhvn  will  learn  the  langunue  of  their 
mothers  besides  the  English,  we  have  l)ut  to  peifect 
their  knowledge  of  German  in  the  i)iil)lie  schools,  to 
keep  open  a  broad  and  deep  ciianncl  through  which 
the  literature,  the  science,  t!)e  art,  of  a  people  who 
know  no  superiors  in  any  line  of  intellectual  develop- 
ment, mechanical  skill,  or  aesthetic  culture,  ma}'  be 
turned  to  account  for  the  benefit  of  our  national  pros- 
perity and  culture." 

Now,  we  well  know  that  in  the  crucible  it  is  invari- 
ably tlie  precious  metal  which  takes  longest  to  dissolve. 
We  find  on  the  lists  of  criminals,  and  other  scum  of 
society,  a  number  of  German  names.  If  we  inquire 
into  these  cases,  we  find,  as  I  did  in  the  police-courts 
and  jails  of  Cincinnati  and  Cleveland,  that  such  per- 
sons are  the  children  of  German  parents  who  gave  up 
their  language,  regarding  it  rather  as  an  obstacle,  and 
neglecting  to  teach  it  to  their  children.  They  have 
proven  base  metal  in  the  coniixjsition.  These  parents, 
who  could  barely  make  themselves  understood  in  Eng- 
lish, threw  away  a  priceless  treasure,  were  ridieided 
by  theii'  wurlhiess  children  for  the  poor  English  they 
spoke,  hence  lost  hold  upon  theii'  children's  budding- 
characters,  and  soon  found  their  control  gone.  And, 
on  the  other  hand,  look  upon  the  astonishing  prosper- 
ity of  German  families  in  which  tlie  (!erman  language 
is  kept  alive  like  a  holy  (ire  ;  si'e  what  wi'll-behaved 
children  they  raise,  and  notice  the  unmistakable  inlln- 
ence  of  the  motiier-tongue  as  an  cdueatioiial  factor. 
If   for  no  other  leason,  German  slionld  l)e  temporarily 


226      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC fi   OF   Till':    DAY. 

koi)t  up  for  tluit  iilono.  The  English  language  does  not 
suffer  under  it.  The  children  breathe  it  with  the  air ; 
moreover,  the  study  of  the  German  assists  the  children 
in  acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  English. 

Of  course  there  will  be  u  time  when  German  immi- 
gration ceases,  and  the  present  generation  vanishes; 
and  then  German  may  be  found  unnecessary  as  a 
medium  of  culture  and  education.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  that,  in  the  "  battle  for  existence  "  between  the 
two  languages,  English  will  survive  as  the  "  fittest," 
being  the  easier  of  the  two. 

But,  however  strong  or  weak  other  arguments  may 
be  in  favor  of  German  in  the  public  schools,  there  is 
one  which  should  put  the  question  definitely  at  rest. 
It  is,  that,  b}'  the  introduction  of  German  into  the 
public  schools,  the  children  of  German  parentage  are 
drawn  into  them,  and  they  learn  to  speak  the  P^nglish 
language  correctly  and  purely  :  and,  growing  up  with 
the  children  of  English-speaking  parentage,  they  be- 
come one  with  them  in  patriotic  devotion  to  American 
institutions.  This  is  an  argument  which  I  wish  to 
emphasize  particularly.  Private  schools  of  all  descrip- 
tions, in  which  the  English  language,  and  American 
history,  and  patriotism  naturall}'  take  back  seats,  would 
flourish  if  we  iiad  not  wisely  drawn  the  German  school 
population  into  our  public  schools,  —  "'the  crucible 
within  which  all  nationalities  are  fused  into  one  homo- 
geneous naliouality, — the  American."  German  in  the 
public  schools  does  not  tend  so  much  to  Germanize 
America  as  it  does  to  Americanize  the  Germans. 


LlTKUATinE   AM)   LASGUAGE.  227 

Ilaviug  clearly  stateil  wliiit  the  ohji^ct  i.s.  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  answer  the  ((uery,  to  what  extent  the 
German  langnage  should  be  taught.  There  should 
be  no  sham  of  any  kind  in  the  schools.  Whatever  is 
done  in  school  should  be  done  well  or  not  at  all.  Wi- 
should  teach  German  as  thoroughly  and  comiiletely  as 
any  other  branch  of  study.  But  our  schools  are,  and 
needs  must  be,  •'  elementary  schools."  The  very  name 
of  our  schools  gives  au  indicatiou  of  what  is  done  in 
them.  We  do  not  try  to  make  our  pupils  master  any 
branch  of  study  ;  that  would  be  a  presumi»tion  :  but 
we  intend  t(^  thonnigiily  ae(|uaint  them  with  the  ele- 
ments and  rudiments,  and  to  train  them  in  the  leady 
application  of  these  elements. 

One  more  point,  and  then  I  will  close.  Figures  show 
that  the  pupils  studying  German  are  not  only  not 
retarded  in  their  English  studies,  but  that  a  larger 
proportion  pass  the  examination  for  promotion  than 
of  those  who  study  English  only.  These  statistics 
were  compiled  by  non-German  gentlemen,  supervisors 
and  superintendents  of  schools  in  Ohio  and  other 
Western  States,  and  will  bt-  finnished  if  desired.  The 
sul)ject  of  "German  in  the  public  scliools "  has  an 
interesting  feature  if  viewed  from  a  business  stand- 
point. If  Gijrman  were  abandoned  to-day  below  tin- 
high  school,  we  should  not  save  a  dollar  to  the  com- 
munity, because  our  so-called  German-English  teachers 
are  not  superuumerarii,  but  regular  class-teachers,  wiio 
devote,  at  an  axeragc,  no  more  than  one-tiiird  of  iheir 
time  to  German   in  each  class.     The    remaining   two- 


228      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE    DA  V. 

thirds  are  given  to  the  English  stiulies.  Now,  if  (iei- 
inan  below  the  high  school  costs  nothing  in  money, 
and  only  ubont  forty-five  to  sixty  or  ninety  minutes 
a  (hiy  in  time,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  objec- 
tion whatever. 

THE   VALUE   OF   GRAMMAR. 

It  is  perhaps  well  to  worry  our  pupils  as  little  with 
grammar  as  possible,  and,  instead,  give  them  more 
instruction  in  language.  It  is  ray  idea,  and  I  am 
hai)pv  to  say  not  mine  alone,  that  a  child  should  first 
k'arn  to  think  in.  a  language,  before  it  is  obliged  to 
think  about  the  language,  that  is,  about  its  construc- 
tion. But  dispensing  with  grammar  altogether  is 
pouring  out  the  child  together  with  the  bath.  For 
grammar  is  the  logic  of  the  elementary  school;  that 
is  to  say,  what  logic  is  to  the  higher  and  highest 
schools,  that  grammar  is  to  our  elementary  schools. 
It  offers  opportunity  for  defining,  classifying,  and 
distinguishing,  which  will  train  the  child  in  correct 
thought.  To  make  a  correct  statement,  is  by  no  means 
so  easy  a  thing  to  the  average  man  or  woman  as  seems 
desirable  ;  and  a  little  grammar  will  assist  in  learning 
to  do  that.  But  I  mean  a  little,  a  very  little  grammar, 
will  suffice.  Grammarians  are  apt  to  enhance  the 
importance  of  this  branch  of  study  by  claiming  that 
the  leading  object  of  the  stud}-  of  English  grammar  is 
to  teach  the  correct  use  of  the  English  language. 
This  is  wrong.  Prof.  Whitney  of  Yale  College,  the 
greatest  linguist  of  America  to-day,  pronounces  it  *'  an 


LTTEHATri.'I-:    A  XI)   T.AXaUACE.  2-2!t 

error,  one  whit-li  is  uindiially  becomiiifi  roiii()Vi'<l.  >j,\\- 
ing  way  to  the  soiiiidL'r  opinion  that  griunnuir  is  the 
rertective  study  of  language,  for  a  variety  of  purposes, 
of  which  correctness  in  writing  is  only  one  an<l  a  sec- 
ondary, or  suI)ordinate  one,  by  no  means  nninipt)rtant, 
l)ut  best  attained  when  sought  indirectly.  One  must 
be  a  somewhat  retlective  user  of  language,  to  amend 
even  here  and  tiiere  a  jioint  l)y  grammatical  reasons; 
and  no  one  ever  changed  from  a  bad  speaker  to  a  good 
one  by  applying  the  rules  of  grammar  to  what  he 
said."  And  IIerl)ert  Spencer  remarks.  ''There  can 
be  little  question  that  gooil  composition  is  far  less 
dependent  upon  its  laws  than  upon  i)ractice." 

POLYCILOT  EXGLIsrf. 

TnK  polyglot  nature  of  the  English  language  makes 
it  very  dillicult  foi'  the  pupils  of  this  country  to  learn 
the  language  as  il  ought  to  ])e  understood  after  eight 
or  twelve  years  of  study.  The  want  of  consistency 
in  the  language  is  perfectly  appalling  ;  and  many,  many 
words,  polysyllabic  in  the  baigain,  stand  like  great, 
erratic  blocks,  literally  without  organic  foundation 
such  as  a  root.  It  is  well  known  to  the  psychologist, 
that  new  cognitions  are  readily  learned  and  willingly 
retained  if  linked  to  previous  cognitions.  IIow  a  child 
is  to  link  the  word  conflarjralion  with  Jire.  Innvever,  is 
very  ditiicult  to  conceive  ;  while  in  (Jerman  it  is  Feuer 
and  Feuersbruust.  Prohibition,  hypooitiaiU  cnnndi's- 
cencp,  mnfpidnimitji.  metaphysical,  incomprehi' nsihil it >i , 
and  scores  of  other  words,  offer  the  same  dilliculty. 


230      EDUCAriONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

Some  words  like  intimidation  are  more  easily  learned 
and  understood.  This  wcjrd  "  intimidation  "  is  traced 
baeiv  to  intimidate,  lirst,  ;inil  that  again  is  traced  back 
to  timid.  There  tlie  child  has  a  root  to  go  to,  a 
fountain-head,  so  to  s^jcak.  But  how  few  are  the 
words  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  French  origin,  that  can 
thus  be  traced  back  !  How  many,  many  applications 
are  necessary  before  the  child  can  comprehend  the 
word  humaniti/  or  humanitarianifun !  If  the  word  had 
consistently  grown  out  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  words 
man  and  friend,  and  had  been  built  up  somewhat  in 
this  shai)e,  '•'•  men-friendliness  "  (the  very  translation  of 
humanit}'),  even  very  young  children  could  understand 
it  instantly.  This  jumping  from  one  compartment  of 
the  language  to  another  retards  the  progress  the  child 
makes,  or  ought  to  make  ;  because  the  compartments 
are  connected  by  no  apertures,  except  such  through 
which  learned  linguists  can  creep,  who  will  trace  back 
Latin,  French.  German,  and  English,  to  Sanscrit  and 
more  ancient  Ar3-an  languages. 

The  child  learns  the  word  dog,  and  has  a  very  clear 
idea  as  to  its  meaning.  However,  if  it  is  to  express 
any  thing  as  dog-like,  or  pertaining  to  dogs,  it  must 
reach  into  the  Latin  compartment  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  there  find  canine.  And  so  I  could  go  on 
ad  infinitum,  all  through  Webster  or  Worcester,  much 
to  the  disgust  and  enlightenment  of  teachers  ;  but  I 
should  be  obliged  to  write  a  book  on  language  alone, 
and  I  have  done  tliat  too  often  not  to  know  the  penalty 
connected  therewith. 


LITER  ATI' RE  A\J)    LANGUAGE.  231 

"A  little  Latin,  however,  is  a  fine  tiling;"  and  a 
little  can  be  learned  by  any'iody,  young  or  old,  suf- 
ficient to  make  liini  understand  the  English  language 
bettei-.  Tlius,  for  instance,  I  should  suggest  to  teach 
the  meaning  of  Latin  prefixes,  such  as  a/j,  ad,  con,  dc, 
dis,  ex,  in,  inter,  pre,  ^^ro,  re,  aub^  trans.  They  may 
be  treated  as  is  done  in  our  schools  and  in  Cincinnati. 
The  following  examples  are  taken  from  a  pani[)lilet 
prepared  by  the  teachers  of  the  intermediate  scIkjoIs 
of  Cincinnati  four  years  ago. 

Ah. 
Signifies /ro/«  or  nway. 

AhAnct,  to  lead /roHJ.     Abstain,  to  keep/i-o»i. 

^/>.stract,i  to  draw /row.     divert,  to  turuy'ry»t. 

^6ject,  absolve,  absorb. 

Signifies  to.  '^''^• 

yl</here,  to  stick  to.     yl scribe,  to  write  or  impute  to. 
AihXnce,  to  lead  to  or  bring  forward,     ^litract,  to  draw  to. 
yl'Zjoin,  aZlude,  awnounce,  «tcord,  accede. 

Con. 
Signifies  together  or  loiih. 

Concede,  to  agree  with ;  to  yield.     Contract,  to  draw  toyelher. 
Concur,  to  run  to'jelher.     Connect,  to  lie  tof/ether. 
Concord,  confer,  compel,  coZlusion. 

Dp. 

Signifies  dotcn  or/con*. 

7)f'duce,  to  lead  or  draw./Vo;n.     Describe,  to  write  down. 
7>'tract,  to  draw/com.     Dt'Uiiu,  to  h'j\<lfn>ni. 
Df-jected,  Jrfer,  Jflude,  <7enonni"p,  Jpoapitate,  drcvy. 

•  Abs.  —Tile  form  of  a  priilix  is  often  changed  so  that  its  fiiinl 
soniid  may  nnirc  i-asily  with  tin;  root.  Tbns  ah  becomi's  nhx  in 
f'/i.-ctnift  and  rtb.-itaiii;  ((in  r/v<M-t.  .!</ liccnnios  rr  in  <(Scri1if;  nt  in 
(//tract;  ul  in  (//liirc;  an  in  </;Mi(>nni-c;  and  nc  in  <(ccord. 


232      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  T/IE   DAY. 


Din. 

Signifies  to  take  away,  from,  off,  or  out ;  not  ;  asunder. 
D/shonest,  not  iionest.     JJ/.scover,  to  take  tjie  cover  off. 
D'lHAvm,  to  take  aioaij  arms.     iJf.stract,.  to  draw  asunder, 
jDisconl,  d/.spel,  (Zf.scouragc,  (V/.sloyal. 

Ex. 
Signifies  out,  out  of. 

Ex\i<i],  to  drive  out.     Educa,  to  lead  out. 

Extract,  to  draw  out.     Eject,  to  throw  out. 

Exceed,  excess,  elude,  euimciate,  educate,  export,  excursion. 

In. 

Signifies  in  or  into  ;  on  or  upon  ;  not. 

/ncursion,  a  running  in.     Induce,  to  lead  into. 

Inscribe,  to  write  upon,     inject,  to  throw  into. 

Jjiactive,  insane,   iyuorainious,    jntmoral,  irregular,  i/legal, 

ivn  port. 

Inter. 

Signifies  betioeen  or  amomj. 

Intercede,  to  go  between,     /nierjection,  a  word  thrown  be- 
tween. 

Jjiferlude,  a  play  between.     Interpose,  to  place  heticeen. 
Interval^,  intersect,  intervene,  interview. 

Pre. 
Signifies  before. 

Precede,  to  go  before.     Precursor,  one  who  runs  before ;  a 
forerunner. 

Predict,  to  tell  before,  to  foretell.     Prelude,  a  play  before. 
Prefer,  j)reQx,  j^r event. 

Pro. 

Signifies  for,  forward,  forth,  or  out. 
Proceed,  to  go/orward.     Produce,  to  \ea.d  forth. 
Propel,  to  drive/oni'«rfZ.     Pronoun, /or  a  noun. 
Proscribe,  project,  pro\dk.e,  protract,  prolong. 


LITERATURE   AND    LANGUAGE.  233 

Re. 

Sigiiifios  hack  or  again;  anew. 

iiffccdo,  to  go  hack.     AVrmember,  to  bring  hack  to  mind. 

JiV'pel,  to  drive  hark.     Reject,  to  throw  hack. 

ii'educe,  rcier,  reform,  reinilsi",  reconquer,  retake,  remake. 

Sah. 
Signifies  tinder,  up. 

.S'a/;scribe,  to  write  under.     Support,  to  »/)'.]old. 

iSi/Ntain,  to  bear  up.     Su/ier,  to  undergo;  to  allow. 

/S'ijspend,  subtract,  SMcceed. 

Trans. 

Signifies  rtcj-oss;  over;  t/irou(jh. 

■  Tran.siev,  to  carry  rker  from  one  person  or  place  to  another. 
7V«;j.sport,  to  carry  over  from  one  place  to  another. 
Trfl/).scribe,  to  write  oi-er ;  to  copy.     Transmit,  to  send  over. 
Transform,  translate,  "trojisgress. 

MISUSED    WORDS. 

Tiiic  following  examples  are  frequently  touclied  up 
in  the  schools  of  Cincinnati.  The  teachers  of  the 
intermediate  grade  found  it  desirable  to  print  a  little 
pamphlet,  a  few  years  ago,  which  proved  of  great 
assistance  to  many  teachers.     I  quote  from  it :  — 

Iiivent.     To  contrive  something  not  in  use  before. 

Discoeer.  To  reveal  that  which  existed  before,  but  was 
unknown.  IJell  "invented"  the  telephone;  Columbus 
"discovered"  Americii.     Discover,  to  »ncover. 

Teach.     To  <jive  instruction. 

Learn.     To  receive  by  instruction;  to  become  experienced. 

Educate.     To  lead  out  and  train  the  faculties  of  the  iiiiiid. 

IiiHlruct.     To  furnish  the  mind  with  knowledge. 


234      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE   DAY. 

Love.  To  have  affection  for.  We  "  love  "  a  mother,  a  father, 
etc. 

Like.  To  be  pleased  with.  We  "like"  a  picture,  good  music, 
etc. 

Renpecifidlij .     In  a  polite  manner  and  with  esteem. 

Bcspectkeli/.  Applying  individually  to  a  group  or  a  series. 
Example.  —  I  would  "  respectfully  "  ask,  etc.  Yours 
"respectfully."  Animals  associate  "respectively"  each 
with  its  kind.  The  Northern  and  the  Southern  trains 
leave  at 8  a.  m.  and  8  p.  m.  "respectively." 

Emigrant     One  who  leaves  a  country  to  settle  in  another. 

Iinnivjrant.     One  who  enters  a  country  to  settle. ^ 

Character.     The  "  character  "  of  a  man  is  what  he  really  is. 

Reputation.  The  "reputation"  of  a  man  is  what  people  say 
of  him.  A  man  whose  character  is  not  good  may, 
nevertheless,  have  a  fair  reputation. 

Balance.     That  which  is  added  to  make  an  equality. 

Heuiainder.  That  which  is  left  after  the  removal  of  a  part. 
Example.  —  The  "balance"  of  an  account.  The  "bal- 
ance" of  power.  The  "remainder"  of  the  company; 
the  "  remainder  "  of  the  week. 

Expect.  Is  often  used  incorrectly  in  sentences  that  refer  to  the 
past  or  the  present:  as,  I  "expect"  he  returned  to  New 
York;  I  "expect"  John  is  sick.  Use  in  such  sentences, 
think,  believe,  or  suppose.  "Expect"  is  to  look  out  for, 
and,  hence,  always  refers  to  the  future;  as,  I  "expect" 
good  news  within  a  week. 

Artist.     One  skilled  in  any  of  the  fine  arts. 

Artisan.     One  who  has  some  mechanical  employment. 

Common.     Belonging  alike  to  more  than  one. 

Mutual.  Proceeding  alike  from  each  of  the  two  parties  con- 
cerned. Example.  —  He  is  our  "common  "  friend.  The 
two  friends  gave  a  "  mutual  "  pledge. 

»  Abbievialioii  aud  coiruptiou  of  "  Es  migraut"  and  "  lu-migraut." 


LITERATURE   AND   LANGUAGE.  235 


A    PRACTICAL    COMPOSITION   IJ;:SSON. 

TiiicuE  are  teachers  who  thuik  every  thing  must  be 
taught  by  rote  and  rule.  They  are  apt  to  forget  the 
great  educational  force  of  habit  and  example.  One 
day  I  attached  to  oue  of  my  examination  questions, 
something  like  this:  '-Give  the  answer  in  the  form  of 
a  letter."  The  teacher  protested,  saying  the  pu[»ils 
had  not  been  taught  to  write  letters  yet ;  it  was  un- 
just to  ask  this.  "And  when  will  they  be  taught 
letter-writing?"  I  in(iiiired.  jbiswer.  —  ''Why,  let- 
ter-writing is  one  of  the  special  features  of  the  lan- 
guage course  in  the  C  intermediate  grade."  —  "Then 
I  must  understand  that  you  interpret  the  course  to  say 
that  below  that  grade  no  letter-writing  is  to  be  done, 
and  that  you  attribute  to  the  author  of  that  course 
so  much  short  sightedness  as  to  think  that  only  the 
pupils  who  reach  the  sixth  year  of  school  should  at 
all  be  taught  to  write  letters?  What  will  the  great 
number  of  pu[)ils  do  who  leave  the  school  before  they 
reach  the  C  intermediate?  AVill  not  they  swell  the 
great  mass  of  ignorance ;  or,  as  they  are  proi)erly 
called,  the  great  army  of  the  unwashed?  Remember 
that  we  have  frecjuently  occasion  to  dei)lon,',  in  order 
ntjt  to  use  the  term  '  ridicule,'  the  execrable  notes  sent 
us  by  many  parents  of  our  pupils  ;  faulty  in  form, 
in  spelling,  in  expression,  in  logic,  in  all  and  evi'ry 
thing  ;  and  would  you  then  doubt  the  necessity  of  I'luly 
training  in  letti'r-writing?  " 

Of  course  the  teacher  was  sensible  enouiiii  lo  admit 


236      EDUCATIONAL    TOJ'irs    OF   THE    DAY. 

the  necessity.  And  now  we  devised  u  plan  of  makinii; 
tlie  exercise  of  lettei-writing  as  little  luboiious  as  could 
be  done.  We  agreed  to  do  this  :  To  put  a  letter  on 
the  board,  and  leave  it  there  for  several  days,  i)erfect 
in  form  as  regards  date,  heading,  paragraphing,  and 
signature.  This  was  to  be  eoi)ied  l)y  the  pupils  fre- 
quently, on  slate  or  paper.  After  a  few  da^'s,  one  or 
more  particulars  of  the  letter  should  be  changed  so 
that  the  truth  impressed  itself  upon  the  child's  mind, 
that,  whatever  the  contents  of  the  letter  might  be,  its 
form  remained  the  same. 

More  than  one-half  of  what  the  child  gains  in  school 
.  is  gained  by  habit  and  example.  If  such  a  standard 
form  as  suggested  were  exhibited,  our  children  would 
uot  enter  the  high  school  unable  to  write  a  simple  note 
or  letter.  To  be  able  to  write  letters,  is  one  of  the 
requisites  of  a  business  man ;  in  fine,  no  man  or 
woman,  however  humble  his  or  her  station  in  life, 
should  be  left  unacquainted  with  business  forms.  The 
example  set  by  this  one  teacher  has  had  good  results. 
It  was  soon  followed  by  other  teachers  ;  and  at  present 
letter-writing  is  practised  at  intervals  in  all  the  grades 
of  our  schools  above  the  lowest  primary  grades.  It 
is  another  illustration  of  the  ancient  saymg,  '■'■Nan 
scholae  set  vitae  discendiim  est.'" 

SPELLING    TAUGHT  RATIONALLY. 

Oral  spelling  in  chorus,  or  b}^  individual  pupils, 
seems  to  me  sheer  waste  of  time.  We  do  not  learu 
to  write  orthographically  by  oral  spelling.     The  way 


LITEUATUUE   AM)   LAXG I'Ar; H.  237 

to  learn  to  spell  (write  correctly),  is  not  to  spell  (to 
separate  the  letters  orally).  Spelling  is  an  old  Anglo- 
Saxon  word,  and  means  .splitting.  In  some  parts  of 
Germany,  the  ancient  homestead  of  the  Angles  and 
Saxons,  the  people  still  ''.s^kV/  liolz''  (si)lit  wood). 
The  ''Practical  Teacher"  is  right  in  saying,  "Oral 
spelling  is  not  spelling  :  it  is  the  oral  description  of  a 
written  word ;  it  helps  spelling  as  oral  descriptious 
help  drawing  and  making.  Most  oral  si)elling  is  a 
terrible  waste  of  time." 

What,  then,  is  to  be  put  in  place  of  oral  "  word- 
splitting  "?  I  maintain  that  words,  like  human  beings, 
have  physiognomies.  A  person  whom  we  pass  on  the 
street,  merely  glancing  at  him,  will  scarcely  be  remem- 
bered by  us,  though  he  may  be  descrilied  to  ns  by 
others  who  know  him  intimately.  However  minute 
this  oral  description  may  be,  in  the  absence  of  the 
person  we  are  unable  to  form  a  vivid  picture  of  his 
face  and  form  in  our  meujory  ;  in  other  wcjrds,  we  can 
not  recoil  him. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  have  met  that  same  person 
frequently,  if  we  have  looked  at  his  features  atten- 
tively, if  we  have  noticed  him  smile,  speak  with  ani- 
jiiation,  —  in  short,  if  we  have  had  occasion  to  study 
the  face,  either  intentionally  or  with.out  intent,  —  it  is 
not  likely  to  escape  our  memory  again.  The  person 
can  easily  be  called  up  in  our  memory  ;  and  if  we 
were  skilful  artists,  we  miglit  produce  a  likeness  on 
jjaper  on  siiort  notice.  Now  let  us  supi)osi'  the  person 
possessed  a  peculiar  feature,  such  as  a  big  bcar  on  his 


238      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC  Si   OF  THE   DAY. 

check,  or  a  wart  on  liis  nose,  or  a  very  low  foichcad, 
or  a  receding  chin,  or  pretty  dimples,  or  what  not, 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  see  him  often  ;  this  very 
peculiarity  that  struck  our  attention  will  indelibly 
imprint  a  likeness  of  the  face  upon  our  memor}'. 

Now,  it  is  exactly  so  with  learning  orthography. 
I^ach  word  has  a  physiognomy.  Some  woids  have 
l)lain  faces,  some  have  features  peculiar  to  themselves  ; 
but  all  are  learned,  not  by  describing  them  orally,  ])ut 
by  using  our  seime  of  sirjht.  Words  of  as  many  letters 
as  they  have  sounds  may  be  learned  by  seeing  and 
pronouncing  them.  If  the  teacher  dictates  such  words 
as  puper,  lamji,  pencil,  etc.,  and  carefully  pronounces 
every  sound,  they  will  be  written  correctly.  But  the 
number  of  such  words  is  comparatively  small  in  Eng- 
lish. Other  words  in  which  the  numl)er  is  greater  than 
that  of  their  sounds,  as  hook,  street,  slate,  ring,  etc., 
will  have  to  be  ol)served  more  closely  and  oftener  by 
the  young  learner.  In  order  to  make  the  peculiarity 
of  these  words  come  out,  and  strike  the  attention,  it 
is  well  to  mark  them  thus :  bwk,  street,  slate,  etc. 
This  should  be  done  on  the  board.  Such  words  as, 
sep'jrate,  ewlogy,  forf^jture,  stn/chnine,  gayety,  eti- 
cjuciie  (I  take  a  few  out  of  the  multitude  hap-hazard), 
are  often  misspelled.  If  marked  on  the  board  as  in- 
dicated, and  left  there  a  few  days,  it  may  be  safely 
said  that  their  peculiarities  will  be  remembered  or 
recalled. 

The  secret  of  vivid  hiowiug  is  vivid  seeing.  If  every 
spelling  lesson  is  conducted  according  to  the  principle 


LITICIlATrnK   A\D    LA  XdUAGK.  239 

that  we  U'ain  orthography  more  through  sight  than 
through  the  sense  of  hearing,  I  am  sure  we  shall  (incl 
little  difficnlty  in  obtaining  good  results.  In  higher 
grades,  words  may  be  groui)ed  according  to  rules,  Ijut 
no  riiU-  slioiild  l)e  given  :  it  should  invariably  lie  dis- 
covered by  the  pujiil.  If  the  teacher  put  the  following 
words  on  the  boartl  in  a  coliunn  :  '•  pavement,  annise- 
ment,  chastisement,  aciiievement,  nifringc-nient,"  etc., 
and  opposite  to  these,  in  another  column,  such  as 
'•judgment,  abridgment,"  and  others,  it  will  not  be 
long  till  the  pupils  have  discovered  why  the  final  e 
of  "■hidge,"  for  instance,  in  the  second  column,  is 
dro|)ped.  This  is  mixing  in  a  little  brains  in  the  other- 
wise dry  study. 

At  every  stage  of  the  course,  howevei',  this  [):uadox 
remains  true:  '*  The  more  crayon  a  teacher  consumes, 
the  better  his  instruction." 

A    Sl^GGESTinX   IX  SPETJJXG. 

TF..\rnF.ns  who  do  not  l)t.'lieve  that  oral  spellir.g 
("spelling  down,"  spelling  matches,  and  daily  dicta- 
tion of  a  numl)er  of  iiicongi  nous  woids  from  the 
spelling-book)  did  ever  or  will  ever  pnxluce  correct 
writt'rs,  that  is,  orthographers,  and  who  have  the 
courage  of  their  eonvietion  to  say  so,  arc  often  looked 
upon  as  miniature  r>ob  Ingersolls.  They  are  regarded 
as  despoilers,  who  teiir  down  without  building  up 
again.  They  an-  elas?,e(l  with  the  nihilists  who  be- 
lieve in  XiiwiuiM.  ]Many  a  small  soul  trembles  as  Ins 
old-fasliione(.l    lieloved    spelling    is    attaiked.       In    his 


240      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF  THE    DAY. 

anguish  lie  peevishly  ciies  out,  ''  Noli  tarhard  circulos 
meos,"  without  l)eiiig  any  thing  like  Archimedes  in 
depth  of  thijught,  in  extent  of  vision,  in  sincerity  of 
purpose,  or  fertility  of  ingenuity. 

A  li'^t  of  words  without  meaning  to  the  child, 
isolated  words  without  connection  in  thought-bearing 
sentences,  are  like  pebbles  in  the  stomach.  You  may 
sugar-coat  pebbles  till  they  are  almost  too  thick  to 
swallow,  but  that  does  not  make  them  digestible. 
They  will  merely  weaken  the  SN'stem.  Do  not  sa}', 
fair  readers,  "■  Here  is  another  specimen  of  a  live 
nihilist,"  for  I  mean  to  suggest  something  in  place 
of  the  spelling  lesson  of  "•  3'e  olden  time."  Hitherto 
we  were  in  the  habit  of  dictating  words  from  the 
spelling-book  which  the  pupils  had  been  told  "to 
study."  I  need  not  explain  how  utterly  futile  this 
stud^Mug  of  often  incomprehensible,  always  incongru- 
ous, and  therefore  indigestible  words,  is.  The  pui)ils 
may  succeed,  for  the  time  being,  to  spell,  that  is,  to 
split  them  ;  but  they  cannot  correctly  build  them  up 
again,  write,  and  properly  apply  them. 

It  may  be  and  it  is  argued,  '•  Our  fathers  learned  to 
write  correctly  by  being  thus  taught :  why  should  not 
we?"  In  the  first  place,  they  did  not  learn  to  write 
correctly  beaiuse  they  spelled  orally,  but  rlpspitc  their 
spelling  orally  all  thi'ough  the  speller  from  back  to 
back.  All  who  did  learn  to  write  correctly  did  so 
because  they  read  much,  and  noticed  the  phj'siognomy 
of  the  words ;  and,  when  writing,  used  dictionaries 
and  other  books  of  reference.     In  the  second  place. 


LITEIiATUllE    AXD    LANGUAGE.  241 

if  only  that  is  right  and  worthy  of  imitation  wliich  our 
fatliers  and  forcfatlicis  did,  then  we  deny  the  justice 
of  progress  of  any  kind.  So,  then,  let  tiu'  forefathers 
rest  i)eacefidly  in  their  graves,  and  remember  the 
poet's  word  :  "■  Xur  das  Lebende  hut  liccht." 

There  is  something  so  ridiculous  in  the  old-fash- 
ioned spelling  exercises,  that  I  cannot  refrain  from 
applying  a  homely  simile  which  will  thiow  light  upou 
the  procedure,  and  reveal  its  true  inwardness.  A 
simple-minded  fellow  enters  the  studio  of  a  portrait- 
painter,  and  says,  "  Sir,  I  want  you  to  paint  my 
grandmother."  —  "With  pleasure,"  replies  the  arti.st. 
"Bring  her  here;  we  must  have  several  sittings  to 
complete  the  picture."  —  "•  Well,  luit  she's  been  dead 
these  eighteen  years ;  if  she  were  alive  I  shouliln't 
need  her  picture."  Is  it  necessary  to  state  that 
teachers  often  require  words  to  be  written  with  which 
the  pujiils  arc  not  familiar?  Is  that  any  thing  else 
than  asking  the  artist  to  paint  a  dead  grandmother? 
But  it  is  said  some  artists  arc  al)le  to  paint  a  face  they 
have  seen  l)nt  once.  Tru?  ;  an;l  so  certain  childicn 
remember  the  physiognomy  of  words,  and  reproduce 
them  afti'r  one  glance.  But  cx:cei)tions  are  not  the 
mil'.  'Words  (as  well  as  faces)  are  better  remem- 
bered if  they  are  leai'ued  in  proper  surroundings. 
Wlien  we  are  brought  faci'  to  face  to  a  [lerson  who 
claims  to  have  l)een  introduced  to  us  before,  we  ask, 
'••  Ulicrc  was  it  I  saw  you?" 

Now,  my  suggestion  is  this:  A*  reading  lesson  in 
the  primary  grades  contains  a  certain  iiiiinber  of  new 


242      EDUCAriONAL    TOrKS    OF   TIIK   DAY. 

woi'ds,  with  which  it  is  the  intcMition  to  familiarize  the 
pupils.  After  the  lesson  is  read,  the  teaclier  ina}' 
single  out  the  sentences  in  which  these  words  occur, 
and  have  these  sentences  copied  verUatira.  If  the 
words  are  strewed  all  over  the  reading  lesson,  so  that 
copying  the  whole  lesson  would  consume  too  much 
time,  the  teacher  may  embrace  the  new  words  in  a 
few  short,  neat  sentences,  write  them  on  the  board, 
and  have  them  copied  from  there.  Now  she  may  call 
upon  the  class  to  underscore  the  new  words  on  the 
slates,  as  she  does  on  the  board.  When  that  is  done, 
she  may  ask  the  pupils  to  moisten  the  tip  of  the  fore- 
finger, and  erase  the  first  word  underscored,  leaving 
the  remainder  of  the  text  intact.  It  is  done.  She  now 
asks,  '"What  word  did  we  erase?"  "How  was  it 
spelled?"  "Insert  the  word  again."  This  is  done 
with  every  new  word  of  the  lesson.  Sometimes  it  is 
found  desirable  to  treat  a  word  thus  repeatedly.  Tliis 
is  teaching  orthography  in  the  primary  grades;  it  is 
not  the  thoughtless  testing  in  vogue  nearly  every- 
where in  this  countr}'.  a  procedure  which  seems  to  aim 
at  a  plentiful  crop  of  mistakes. 

One  of  my  teachers  to  whom  I  had  recommended 
this  manner  of  practising  orthography  said,  "Well, 
but  tliey  get  a  hundred  per  cent  every  day."  She 
meant  to  say,  "  Well,  but  now  the  pupils  do  not  make 
mistakes  any  more."  God  be  thanked,  they  don't: 
that  is  exact!}'  what  we  should  aim  at.  Supjiose 
that  we  were  to  grade  the  pupils  dail}'  in  cleanliness  : 
would  we   drag    them   through   the   gutter   first,    and 


LITEllA  TUJiE  A  ND   LA  NO  UA  HE  243 

then  wonder  why  tho\'  arc  not  clean  ?  One  ounce  of 
prevention  is  l)etter  than  a  pound  <;f  cure.  Let  tiic 
{)upils  only  write  correct  physiognomies  of  words,  and 
their  memory  will  not  retain  an\-  wrong  ones.  Do  iKjt 
permit  any  mistake  to  Ix;  made.  Go  through  the 
aisles,  while  the  pupils  are  at  work,  and  correct,  that 
is  to  sa}',  "make  right"  what  is  found  wrong.  By 
thus  vigilantly  weeding  out  error,  you  will  develop  in 
the  pupils  an  orthographical  conscience,  so  sensitive 
that  it  will  revolt  against  error  as  a  moral  conscience 
will  against  crime. 

Of  course  this  advice  is  offered  to  primar}-  teachei-s  ; 
in  higher  grades,  other  modes  of  teaching  orthogra[)hy 
may  prove  more  successful. 

GARMENT  AND  SUBSTANCE   OF   TIIOUGHT. 

Why  is  it,  that  the  eight  years'  course  of  an 
American  common  scIkxjI  yields  far  less  fiiiit  than  a 
course  of  six  or  seven  years  in  a  (Jerman  Volkn-schnlef 
"Why  is  it,  that  pupils  in  the  Cincinnati,  Clevelnnd, 
Columbus,  and  Hamilton  schools,  who  have  daily 
lessons  in  German  beside  their  other  English  studies, 
are  no  whit  behind  their  schoolmates  who  aim  at  a 
common  English  education  only?  It  is  no  enigma  to 
any  one  who  comprehends  the  peculiar  difTicnlties  the 
English  language  affords.  Heading  and  spelling  Eng- 
lish are  very  difficult  to  learn.  After  the  fust  year, 
there  are  liteially  nc  more  difficulties  in  the  mechani- 
cal part  of  reading  for  a  child  in  Germany.  lint 
think  of    the  enormous  amount   of    time    and    energy 


244      EDUCATION  A  L    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

the  English  and  American  child  has  to  expend  in 
trying  to  master  the;  mere  (jarment  of  the  thoKfjJits  nf 
others.  He  finds  little  time  and  energy  left  for  the 
substance  of  thought.  The  German  language  offers 
no  obstacles  in  ortliography,  such  as  are  found  in 
English.  The  latter  is  full  of  i)itfalls.  Look  at  any 
of  the  numerous  courses  of  study,  for  primaiy  and 
intermediate  grades.  There  we  find  reading,  spelling, 
writing,  grammar,  and  composition  ;  all  these  have 
reference  to  the  garment  and  the  forms  of  thought. 
Then  we  find  geography,  arithmetic,  and  a  small 
pellet  of  home  history ;  these,  in  a  measure,  offer 
substance  of,  or  material  for,  thought.  When  any  one 
suggests  that  natural  history,  physics,  physiology,  and 
general  history  be  inserted  in  the  curriculum  (all  of 
which,  by  the  way,  are  taught  in  the  intermediate 
grades  of  German  schools,  only  to  a  limited  extent, 
of  course),  wise-acres  raise  the  cry  of  over-pressure, 
and  justly  so  perhaps.  Are  our  children  and  chil- 
dren's children  forever  condemned  to  suffer  from  the 
iniquities  of  English  orthography?  Must  they  lose 
or  waste  precious  years  in  early  3'outh,  in  learning 
to  wield  the  unruly  instrument  of  English  spelling? 
Think  of  the  time  and  energy  which  might  be  saved 
if  we  wrote  as  toe  pronounced,  no  more  and  no  less. 
The  recording  angel  must  shed  a  silent  tear  of  nn- 
speakable  misery,  when  he  is  obliged  to  record  in 
English  ,  but  then  it  is  reasonable  to  presume  that 
he,  at  least,  writes  phonetically,  —  a  presumption 
which  needs  no  Andover  theology  to  uphold  it. 


LITERATURE  AND  LANGUAGE.  245 

il//.S\S'   LOTTIE'S    Til  HE  E    BOYS. 

Miss  Lottik  Piiili.ip.s,  teacher  in  the  Fifth  Ward 
School,  Hamilton,  the  other  d:iy  gave  a  model  lesson 
in  reading,  Ijefc^re  the  teachers  of  Hamilton,  and 
astonished  thorn  all  \)\  her  skill  in  ai)i)lying  sonnding, 
instead  of  si>elling,  in  teaching  to  read.  First,  she 
proved  that  the  i)npils  had  been  tanght  the  rcq.iired 
nnmber  of  com})lete  words  by  the  word-method ;  then 
she  practised  analysis  of  such  words  as  rat,  niari,  and 
the  like.  Tiiis  analysis  was  illustrated  by  placing 
three  of  the  brightest  little  chaps  in  front  of  the  class, 
charging  one  to  sa}'  m  (the  sound  m,  not  the  letter 
em)  when  called  upon;  the  next  one,  a;  and  the 
third,  71.  Then  b}'  placing  thoin  close  to  each  other, 
so  that  their  shoulders  would  touch,  she  made  them 
sound  the  word  man  rapidlj'.  The  same  was  done 
with  other  words. 

Now  she  separated  the  boys,  the  middle  one  re- 
maining in  his  place,  while  the  others  receded  toward 
the  right  and  left;  and  every  time  they  made  a  step, 
the  word  was  pronounced  over  again,  thus  separat- 
ing the  sounds  farther  and  farther.  After  that  was 
done,  synthesis  followed,  and  the  two  "  end  men  " 
came  back  to  their  old  position  step  by  step,  the  three 
bo^s  pronouncing  the  sounds  as  often  as  a  step  was 
made,  the  sounds  being  drawn  long  enough  U)  make 
them  appear  one  word. 

Then  other  words  wore  treated  in  like  manner. 
Now    the    toaciu'i'    chaiigod    the    boys'    positions,  and 


246      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICS   OF  Tl/K    DAY. 

asked  each  to  i)ionouiK'C  his  sound.  Of  course,  it 
was  at  once  seen  tliat  that  did  not  make  the  word 
man,  or  whatever  word  was  before  the  class.  Finally 
they  assumed  their  former  position,  and  once  more 
the  well-known  words  were  pronounced.  Then  these 
words  were  found  on  the  ehait,  on  the  board,  in  print 
and  script  form  ;  and  it  was  quite  obvious  that  the 
class  enjoyed  the  lesson  hugely. 

Call  this  play,  if  you  i)lease.  If  the  children  learn 
more  by  play  than  by  joyless  drudgery,  I  prefer  play 
every  time.  I  assure  my  readere  it  was  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  that  there  was  every  condition  of  success- 
ful tear;hing  exhibited  by  teacher  and  pupil. 

IN  BLACK    ON    WHITE. 

It  is  well  known  what  an  excellent  schoolmaster 
James  A.  Garfield  was.  He  possessed  a  skill  in 
leading  the  students  ud  ubsunUtm,  rarely  surpassed 
by  any  living  teacher.  When  he  was  president  of 
Eiiam  College,  something  was  remarked  about  the 
slovenliness,  carelessness,  and  general  want  of  exacti- 
tude, of  the  students  in  copying  or  quoting  authorities. 
He  desired  to  test  this,  and  his  genius  hit  upon  a  most 
admirable  way  of  doing  it.  He  copied  a  ])assage  from 
Virgil  on  a  slip  of  paper ;  out  fifty  more  slips  of  the 
same  size,  and  then  handed  one  of  the  students  his 
copy,  and  asked  him  to  copy  that  for  him  quickly,  to 
oblige  him,  because  he  had  not  time  to  do  it  himself. 
The  student  went  to  work,  copied  it  hastily,  and 
Garfield  numbered  this  co[)y   1  in  the  corner.      Then 


LITERATURE  AND  LANUUAlJE.  247 

he  pivo  tliis  copy,  No.  1 ,  to  a  second  student,  and 
a^^ked  him  also  to  copy  it.  lie  did  this  so  unostenta- 
tiously that  student  No.  1  was  not  aware  of  it.  Tlu; 
second  copy  was  given  into  the  hands  of  the  third, 
the  third  into  the  hands  of  the  fourth,  the  fourth  copy 
into  the  hands  of  the  fifth,  until  finally  the  forty- 
ninth  copy  was  i)ut  into  the  hands  of  the  fiftieth 
student.  The  last  ten  or  more  hoys  had  a  liroad 
smile  on  their  faces  while  they  eoi)ied  the  passage. 
The  reason  of  this  was  well  known  to  Garfield.  When 
at  last  the  fiftieth  copy  was  handed  to  him  (it  may 
have  taken  a  number  of  days,  so  as  to  accomplish 
this  copying  without  revealing  the  intention),  it  looked 
more  like  Russian  or  Hebrew  than  Latin.  It  was 
literally  incomprehensible.  P^very  one  of  the  copyists 
had  made  new  mistakes,  until  finally  the  last  copy 
proved  incontestably,  to  both  students  and  faculty, 
the  justness  of  the  remark  about  the  boys'  shiftless- 
ness  and  inaccuracy.  This  occurrence  was  an  eye- 
opener  for  the  whole  college. 

Shall  we  add  a  moral?  Yes,  fair  reader,  it  is  this: 
Try  it  yourself  with  plain  English,  and  convince  your 
own  boys  and  girls  to  what  inaccuracy  leads. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

A    NEW  DEPARTURE   IN   TEACHING 
GEOGRArUY. 

[A  Paper  reail  hffore  the  National  Educational  Asso9laCion.] 

Permit  me  to  depart  from  the  customary  metliod  of 
procedure,  by  starting  from  the  general,  and  going 
down  to  tl)e  particular  subject,  by  first  directing  atten- 
tion to  th(!  fact  that  in  teaching  young  pupils  we 
should  invariably  start  from  sense-perception  ;  from 
that,  the  next  step  to  conception  and  idea  is  easily 
taken,  —  ne\er  vice  veisa.  Show  the  child  the  partic- 
ular, the  concrete  thing;  show  him  several  similar 
facts,  and  offer  an  opportunity  to  abstract  from  them, 
to  rise  from  the  object  to  tiie  idea.  Every  subject  of 
instruction  in  the  lower  schools  has  a  certain  ele- 
mentary basis  of  sense-perception.  The  primary  ideas 
resulting  therefrom  will  be  easily  undeistood  by  the 
child,  because  by  means  of  his  five  senses  he  can  take 
them  in,  retain  and  assimilate  them.  If  an}'  thing  be 
taught  lacking  this  sound  basis,  —  that  is,  any  thing 
the  elements  of  which  cannot  be  perceived  by  the 
senses,  —  it  has  no  business  to  be  inchidcd  iii  the  coiMse 
of  study  of  the  elemeulaiy  schcM)ls  ;    it  uould,  in  Fact, 


252      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  TllK    DA  V. 

be  like   the   proverbial   bladeless   knife    that   had    no 

handle.     In  a  measure,  this  rule  holds  good  in  every 

braneli  of  study,  even  in  the  most  abstract  philosophy. 

A  few  simple  examples  can  explain  what  is  meant. 

(1)  You  may  never  see  South  America,  yet  you  may 
obtain  a  tolerably  accurate  knowledge  of  the  topog- 
raphy of  that  continent.  And  it  is  sense-perception 
by  means  of  which  you  gain  this  knowledge.  You 
know  what  is  signified  by  such  terms  as  elevations  and 
depressions,  peaks  and  ridges,  valleys  and  heights, 
plateaus  tnd  plains,  coasts  and  banks,  capes  and  in- 
lets, rivers  and  lakes,  bnys  and  harbors,  islands  and 
peninsulas,  llanos  and  i)ampas ;  they  are  names  of 
things  the  like  of  which  have  come  under  your  own 
personal  observation.  And  with  the  aid  of  illustra- 
tions your  imaginative  power  may  be  fed  sufficiently 
to  obtain  a  pretty   accurate   idea  of    South  America. 

(2)  The  artist  who  modelled  the  Venus  of  Milo  may  not 
have  seen  the  original  in  reality  ;  but  his  power  of  im- 
agination was  so  great,  that,  starting  from  what  forms 
of  beauty  he  had  seen,  he  combined  them,  and  thus 
created  the  graceful  figure  which  to  this  day  has  re- 
mained the  ideal  of  beauty.  (3)  No  one  ever  saw  the 
ideal,  that  is,  the  absolutely  perfect  human  being,  of 
whom  we  all  have  a  more  or  less  definite  idea.  His 
eye  must  have  the  keenness  of  an  eagle's  eye  ;  his 
forms  must  vie  in  beauty  with  those  of  Apollo  Belve- 
dere ;  his  strength  must  be  superhuman  ;  he  must  be 
accomplished  in  all  the  arts,  be  a  Mozart  in  music,  a 
Rai)hael  in  painting,  a  Demosthenes  in  elocution,  etc.  ; 


GEOGRAPUY.  253 

ho  must  be  a  thinker  far  boyoiid  an}'  philosopher 
of  ancient  or  nxuieru  times ;  iu  point  of  morals  he 
must  be  as  unblemislied  as  the  vi-ry  stais  above. 
Where  is  he  to  be  found?  Yet  he  exists  in  our  im- 
agination ;  and  he  is  a  creation,  every  part  of  which 
has  its  oiigin  in  reality.  (4)  Take  history.  You  were 
not  present  at  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  republic  ; 
yet  from  what  is  told  you,  and  from  what  you  have 
experienced  yourself,  you  can  form  a  vivid  picture  of 
the  state  of  things  at  the  time  of  Cj^sar.  And  your 
knowledge  of  the  events  that  happened  two  thousand 
years  ago  in  Komc  will  Ite  the  more  vivid,  the  clearer 
your  ideas  are  of  the  political  instititions  of  your  own 
country. 

Analoy  and  comparison  are  impossible  when  there 
is  nothing  in  your  mind  with  which  to  compare.  Not 
having  a  standard  measure,  how  will  you  measure  a 
distance?  Every  iota  of  instruction,  every  idea,  every 
rule,  must  be  l)ased  upon,  or  lead  back  to,  perceptions 
pieviously  gained  ;  and  where  these  are  wanting,  they 
mu>t  be  supplied.  This  is  a  condition  of  rati(jnnl 
iiistiuction  sine  (jna  non. 

In  the  special  subject  under  discussion  in  this  pajx'r, 
the  question  ajises :  Have  our  pui)ils  the  necessary 
basis  of  sense-perception  when  they  take  up  the  study 
of  geography,  say  in  the  third  school-year?  I  think 
not ;  and  in  the  way  in  which  geography  is  taught 
commonly,  we  do  not  even  offer  facilities  for  gaining 
sense-i)erception.  Do  not  say,  "Ay,  l>ut  we  do;  for 
we.start  from  the  schoolroom,  and  gradually  widen   the 


254      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

horizon  of  observation."  Despite  this  assertion,  I 
repeat :  The  method  in  vogue  is  faulty,  inasnincii  as  it 
fails  to  establish,  first  of  all,  a  sound  basis  of  sense- 
perception.  'I'he  average  teacher  begins  to  build 
before  he  knows  upon  what  foundation  he  bniULs.  To 
prove  my  assertion,  I  could  bring*  in  evidence  enough 
to  convince  even  a  jury  composed  of  proverbial  court- 
house rats.     A  few  facts  ma}^  suffice,  however. 

Of  ninety  pui)ils  in  a  grammar  school  iu  Hamburg, 
only  thirty-eight  had  seen  the  sun  rise  ;  only  eight  had 
ever  noticed  the  Milky  Way.  Out  of  a  thousand  chil- 
dren, when  entering  the  public  schools  of  Berlin,  only 
six  hundred  and  tliirty-eight  had  seen  the  evening  red, 
only  four  hundred  and  sixty-two  the  setting  sun.  I 
am  prepared  to  give  man}'  more  instances  of  ignorance 
of  common  daily  occurrences  and  facts,  but  my  time 
is  limited.  Of  five  hundred  and  two  children  that  en- 
tered the  schools  of  Plauen,  Saxony,  last  3'ear,  only 
ninety-two  had  seen  the  sun  rise,  and  a  hundred  and 
fourteen  had  seen  the  sun  set.  You  may  be  tempted 
to  saj',  "  These  frightful  examples  of  ignorance  were 
found  in  German}'.  God  be  thanked,  they  cannot  be 
found  in  enlightened  America."  This  is  but  [)Oor 
consolation.  I  ckiim  these  cases  have  been  systematic- 
ally enumerated  in  Germ.an}-,  because  there  teaching 
is  a  profession,  and  people  there  are  accustomed  to 
treat  educational  questions  with  scientific  thorough- 
ness ;  while  in  this  countr}',  as  Hon.  Henry  Barnard 
of  Connecticut  says,  "The  business  of  education  is 
pursued  with  an  utter  lack  of  system,  with  complete, 


GEoauM'iiY.  255 

iinsympathizing,  independent.  sc'lf-d('|)ond('nt  isolation 
of  effort."  I  am  eonlident  that  our  Aniciican  cliiidri-n. 
if  exauiinefl,  would  be  found  to  exliil)it  the  same  ile- 
l)loral>le  want  of  iiifoiniat  ion.  Di'.  Stanley  liall  has 
proven  this  satisfaetorily  to  all  who  are  not  prejudieed. 
My  own  experience,  during  twenty  years  in  the  school- 
rooms of  this  country,  is  in  substance  the  same.- 

The  greatest  error,  then,  which  prevails  in  the  teach- 
ing of  geography,  is  the  lack  of  preliminary  steps.  In 
every  other  branch  of  study,  even  the  most  inferior 
teacher  proceeds  somewhat  rationally  :  liut  geography 
nsually  begins,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  with  the  introduction 
of  the  text-book. 

Ritter.  the  father  of  modern  geographical  science, 
says,  "The  most  natural  method  is  the  one  which 
makes  the  child  familiar  with  reality  first,  which  lays 
a  sound  foundation  of  geographical  knowledge  gained 
through  actual  observation  of  that  part  of  natine  which 
suirounds  the  child.  Here  he  is  to  letirn  to  see. 
Wlu'thor  he  lives  in  the  city  or  in  the  hamlet,  on  the 
nioinilain  or  in  the  \alley,  it  is  ceitainly  not  within 
the  four  walls,  not  from  maps,  and  not  from  the  text- 
book, l)ut  in  nature  alone,  that  knowledge  of  nature 
will  be  gained  l)y  him.  Nature  ever  remains  the  same  ; 
she  knows  no  typographical  errors,  no  blunders  in 
drawing,  no  want  of  discretion.  Nature's  tt-aching  is 
always  perfect.  This  elementary  method  combines  all 
the  rocpiireinents  of  science:  it  furnishes  the  stratum 
of  concrete  knowledge,  from  which  abstract  ideas  arc; 
dniwn.      Annd    nature,   the   child    learns   to  know  the 


256      EDUCATIONAL    rOT'TCS   OF  THE   DAY. 

country  in  all  its  viirioiis  conditions,  and  learns  to 
recognize  it  even  on  tiie  Hat-sin-faced  representation, 
—  the  map.  If  this  genuine  elementary  instruction 
be  given,  all  difliculties  of  subsequent  iuhtruction  in 
geography  are  removed." 

I  know  I  am  not  saj-iug  any  thing  new.  Other  peo- 
ple have  spoken  of  the  necessity  of  laying  the  founda- 
tion correctly,  but  what  I  desire  to  do  is  to  show  you 
how  this  can  be  done.  During  the  summer,  I  fre- 
quently take  my  children  into  parks  and  out  into  the 
country.  Let  me  describe  one  of  these  excursions. 
One  morning  we  started  out  due  east,  which  direction 
was  fixed  by  the  rising  sun.  We  roamed  about  till  we 
found  the  source  of  a  brooklet.  Here  I  began  my 
lesson  on  watersheds,  river-systems,  etc.  Here  the 
children  saw  the  very  beginning  of  a  water-course. 
They  noticed  the  water  trickling  from  beneath  the 
roots  of  large  trees,  till  it  increased  enough  in  bulk 
and  force  to  run  along  in  the  form  of  a  creek.  Here 
they  learned  by  actual  observation  what  a  watershed 
is,  seeing  one  spring  descend  on  the  one  side  of  a 
ridge,  another  on  the  opposite  side.  We  then  followed 
the  brook,  saw  it  grow  deeper  and  wider  b}'  the  influx 
of  other  springs.  In  following  it,  we  sometimes  cut 
across  the  fields  where  certain  curves  in  its  course 
would  have  prolonged  the  excursion  unnecessarily. 
Every  curve,  hill,  and  valley  was  carefully  sketched  on 
a  slate  as  we  proceeded.  AVhen  we  reached  the  end 
of  the  brook,  we  saw  where  it  emptied  into  the  tribu- 
tiiry  of  a  larger  river.     Ascending  a  hill,  we  could  see 


GEOGRAPHY.  257 

the  river  meaiuler  through  the  coiintr}',  could  sec  that 
it  was  bridged  over  in  the  neigiihorhood  of  the  city. 
And  on  tiiis  excursion  we  uotieed  iiiils,  rocks,  slopes, 
plateaus,  woods,  meadows,  fields,  plains,  valleys, 
paths,  high-roads,  railroads,  farmhouses,  and  settle- 
ments. The  observations  were  all  carefully  noted 
down  on  our  slates,  and  the  names  were  repeated,  and 
tlius  fixed  in  the  memory.  The  children  U'arned  to 
distinguisli  the  different  kinds  of  grain,  many  knids  of 
trees,  certain  minerals,  Itirds,  and  insects;  and  thus 
we  mingled  a  little  natural  iiistory  witli  our  geograpiii- 
cal  lesson.  At  home  we  had  a  review  lesson,  which 
proved  incontrovertibly  that  this  kind  of  instructiou 
is  the  most  successful  of  all. 

We  may  call  this  an  ideal  lesson  in  geography. 
Circumstances,  as  they  i)revail  in  our  schools,  make 
it  next  to  imi)os8ible  to  follow  this  example.  All 
tilings  considered,  h(j\vevei\  I  dare  say,  if  a  teacher 
of  a  Third  Reader  grade  would  take  her  pujiils  out  of 
town,  and  take  a  position  on  the  top  of  a  iiill  if  there 
is  any  within  reach,  and  then  and  there  point  out  the 
different  things  to  be  seen,  I  am  sure  the  children 
would  learn  more  real  geography  in  one  half-hour 
than  they  could  in  a  year  from  tlie  printed  i)nge. 
Some  cities  are  fiivorably  situalcd  for  such  iiistructi\ c 
excursions  ;  and  if  the  scIkkjI  aulliorilies  were  askeil 
for  permission,  I  believe  they  would  not  refuse  it. 

If,  however,  tiiis  ideal  instruction  in  gcogr;i[)iiy  be 
considered  inipiactic;il)le,  we  might  snlistitute  some- 
thing    in     place     of     nature,    something     imitative    of 


258      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  Till-:    DAV. 

nature,  l)y  which  l(j  form  thiit  piimary  l»asis  of  sense- 
perception,  without  which  instruction  in  geography 
will  never  have  lasting  results  ;  something  better  than 
the  flat-surfaced  representation,  the  map.  We  can 
make  the  hills  and  the  valleys,  the  capes  and  the 
ridges,  the  plains  and  plateans,  the  water-courses  and 
water-sheds,  by  procuring  a  large  baker's  pan  of  gal- 
vanized sheet-iron  ;  and  with  clay,  sand,  gravel,  a  few 
sticks  and  twigs,  and  water,  we  can  mould  mountains, 
hills,  and  show  lakes,  rivers,  etc.,  and  thus  create 
a  fancy  representation  which  offers,  in  a  measure, 
what  nature  itself  offers.  In  this  way,  too,  we  can 
lay  out  a  city  or  village,  a  whole  state  or  continent, 
in  the  rough.  In  short,  by  way  of  imitation,  we  can 
establish  all  the  primary  ideas  desirable  for  a  thorough 
comprehension  of  the  subsequent  instruction  in  geog- 
rapiiy.  We  nnist  dismiss  from  our  mind  the  eironeous 
idea  that  we  ma}'  take  for  granted  the  existence  of 
certain  elemeutar}'  ideas  in  our  pupils.  Kather  pre- 
sume too  little  than  too  much.  Again  I  state  that  I 
am  saying  nothing  new.  I  only  intend  to  lead  up  to 
a  point  which  will  be  new. 

A  large  pan,  such  as  I  have  described,  ought  to  be 
furnished  by  the  school  authorities,  to  every  Second 
and  Third  Reader  grade.  Then,  when  the  preliminary 
steps  to  the  study  of  geography  have  been  taken,  we 
may  introduce  such  relief  maps  as  arc  now  patented 
in  tliis  countrj\  They  show  elevations  and  depres- 
sions and  water-courses  in  sui>orfieial  projection. 
They  are  made  of  papier-inache,  and  are  covered  with 


GEOGRAI'IIV.  2.')9 

slating  or  other  cleansilile  substances,  adapted  to 
receive  obliterative  marks  made  witii  slate  or  lead 
pencil  or  cra\'on,  and  may  be  used  as  slates.  These 
mi>i)s  serve  to  l)ridge  over  the  chasm  lietweeu  nature 
and  the  flat-surfaced  representation,  —  the  ordinary 
map. 

Let  me  submit  to  your  earnest  consideration  these 
questions :  Has  not  geograpliical  knowledge,  for  ages, 
been  wrested  from  overstocked  maps?  Had  not  the 
child  to  search  painfully  among  a  bewildering  mass  of 
data  and  facts,  for  those  that  were  to  be  committed 
to  memory?  AVas  not  a  systematic  progress,  step  by 
step,  impossible?  Now,  just  as  little  as  a  teacher 
would  give  into  the  hands  of  a  child  a  coin'  of 
AVebster's  Unabridged  when  he  is  to  begin  the  study 
of  reading,  just  as  little  can  it  be  rational,  in  geog- 
raphy, to  place  before  the  child  such  a  mai).  We 
must  grade  the  matter  of  instruction  in  geography, 
just  as  we  grade  the  matter  in  reading,  in  arithmetic, 
and  other  branches.  Relief  maps  of  this  kind  would 
facilitate  this  grading,  as  well  as  present  opportunities 
for  the  gradual  upbuilding  of  a  geograi)hical  knowl- 
edge, as  gained  item  by  item  by  the  child. 

They  can  be  made  as  cheap  as  conunon  in:ips.  and 
will  tiiererore  meet  tlu;  f()ruiidal)le  objcL-tiou  of  cost, 
raised  against  relief  maps  heretofore.  I  [ion  tlu-se 
maps  may  l)e  entered,  as  ui)on  a  slate,  the  data  to 
be  leained.  And  thus  the  child  is  made  self-active: 
it  learns  l»v  doiug.  A\  Inn  the  lesson  is  completed, 
the   marks  :nul   names    i-nlfn-d    ii[ioii   it    are    carefullv 


260      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE  DAY. 

erased  with  moist  sponge,  and  we  are  ready  for  a 
new  or  for  a  review  lesson. 

And  now  we  ascend  to  the  liigher  grades,  the  Fonrth 
or  Fifth  Reader  classes.  Tims  far,  1  understand,  few 
teachers,  if  any,  use  a  text-book  in  teaching  geogra- 
phy. From  this  grade  upward,  the  text-book  is  used 
everywhere.  I  am  not  in  sympathy  with  this.  1  can- 
not recommend  any  text-book  that  contains  more  tiian 
maps  and  illustrations.  It  should  contain  no  text ; 
should,  in  fact,  be  no  text-book,  but  an  atlas  pure 
and  simple.  Why?  I  shall  state  farther  on.  And 
as  to  the  wall-maps,  I  have  my  serious  doubts  as  to 
their  usefulness  in  their  present  condition.  A  wall- 
map  to  be  used  in  the  Fourth  or  Fifth  Reader  grade 
should  have  recorded  upon  it  nothing  but  what 
belongs  by  right  to  a  picture  or  representation  of 
nature ;  and  therefore  it  should  contain  no  lettering, 
no  names.  Permit  me  to  present  to  your  consider- 
ation a  map  which  I  made  for  my  own  children.  I 
procured  a  portable  blackboard,  drew  the  map  by 
means  of  the  pentagraph,  and  colored  the  water- 
courses pale  blue.  In  order  to  make  it  less  destructi- 
ble, I  gave  it  a  waterproof,  cleansible  surface.  Let 
me  show  you  how  the  map  may  be  used.  It  contains, 
as  you  will  notice,  only  the  outlines  of  the  continent, 
exhibiting  terra  finna  in  black ;  oceans,  lakes,  and 
water-courses  in  blue  ;  and  no  name  whatever. 

The  teacher,  pointer  and  colored  crayon  in  hand, 
pointing  to  the  sources  of  two  rivers  that  run  in 
almost  opposite  directions,  draws  out  by  a  few  leading 


GEOGltAPIIV.  201 

questions,  that  hore  must  be  a  wutor-slicd.  CliilWri'U 
who  liavt'  Itecn  tauulit  as  I  indicated  at  the  beg"iiiiiin<^" 
of  iny  discourse  are  able  to  thus  reason  from  effect 
back  to  cause.  Knowing  that  water  seeks  its  KncI. 
they  will,  with  great  decision  and  accuracy,  lix  upon 
the  map  all  impoitant  water-sheds  of  the  country. 
These  are  marked  with  era3'ou  by  the  teacher  himself, 
or  by  pu|)ils  under  his  direetiou.  By  degrees,  the 
map  is  stocked  with  all  the  elevations  to  be  learned. 
This  takes  very  little  time,  and  has  the  great  advan- 
tage of  concentrating  the  pupils'  attention.  Every 
name  thus  learned,  both  of  mountains  and  rivers,  is 
written  on  the  board  :  the  name  of  the  main  river  in 
the  middle  ;  below  it,  on  the  left,  its  left  tril)utaries  ; 
on  the  I'ight,  its  right  tribntaries.  These  names  are 
left  on  the  board  a  few  days.  They  are  spelled  and 
copied.  The  names  of  elevations  thus  learned  are 
grouped  and  treated  likewise.  The  coast-line,  islands, 
capes,  inlets,  peninsulas,  etc.,  are  pointed  out,  marked 
with  crayon,  and  named.  Thus  crayon  and  pointer 
are  ever  kept  busy  in  bringing  out  new  points.  The 
coast  line  and  general  conliguration  of  the  continent 
may  I)e  taken  for  one  lessen,  the  rivers  for  another, 
and  so  on.  After  the  lesson  is  over,  all  marks  are 
erased  ;  and  now  the  pupils  are  called  upon  to  mark 
points  themselves  and  thus  learn  ])y  doing. 

Thus  we  may  supi)ose  toi)ographical  facts  of  the 
most  vital  im|)ortance  to  have  been  learned.  In  a 
subsequent  lesson,  a  little  grecu-ciayon  dust,  laid  on 
with  the  nnger-ti[),  may  indicate   fertili'  valleys  ;    white 


2()2    EDUCArioxAL  TOP  res  of  the  day. 

dots  or  lines,  snow-covered  nionntiiin  ranges  or  peaks; 
various  depths  of  tiie  sea,  and  other  tilings,  may  be 
marked,  and  the  topography  is  disposed  of.  Now 
political  boundaries  are  mai'ked.  So,  for  instance,  a 
State  is  "  cut  out  "  by  white  or  colored  crayon  ;  canals 
and  trunk-roads  are  entered  upon  the  map;  and  I 
need  not  say  that  the  location  of  cities  forms  a  most 
valuable  and  entertaining  lesson. 

The  fact  that  whatever  geographical  data  are  spread 
upon  the  map  may  be  easily  and  safely  removed 
without  the  least  injur}'  to  body  or  surface  of  the 
map,  gives  an  opportunity  for  the  pupils  to  be  self- 
active;  and  these  "practice  maps"  are  therefoi-e  a 
most  welcome  medium  of  instruction.  The}'  are  also 
distinguished  from  others  now  in  use,  by  containing 
uo  lettering,  and  therefore  present  a  more  perfect 
image  of  the  country  portrayed.  The  names  on  the 
map  used  by  children  are  like  ponies  and  keys  in 
arithmetic,  and  only  disfigure  the  map,  and  coufuse 
the  mental  picture.  These  "  practice  maps  "  do  not 
displace  the  ordinary  printed  maps,  so  long  as  our 
teachers  are  not  omniscient.  When  the  pupils  have 
thus  learned  geograph}-  by  degrees,  it  is  well  to  permit 
them  to  consult  liberally  stocked  maps.  Primer  and 
reading  charts  naturally  i)recede  the  dictionary  and 
complete  works  of  authors. 

To  give  due  honor  to  truth,  we  all  labor  more  or 
less  under  the  delusion  that  a  map  is  good  when  it 
contains  ?u»c/i;  that  it  js  poor  when  it  contains  little. 
In  the  common  sense  of  the  term,  the  word  "  good"  is 


GEOGRAPHY.  263 

not  misapplied.  The  map  of  ji  military  leader  must 
contain  ever}'  turnpike,  path,  iianiK-t,  brook,  ciiH'k, 
bridge,  marsb,  grove,  hill,  ete.,  if  il  is  to  be  a  good 
map.  A  commercial  map,  if  it  come  up  to  the  mer- 
chant's i<lea,  must  contain  all  the  information  of  value 
to  him :  I  need  not  enumerate  these  things.  The 
geometer,  again,  ha.s  a  different  standard  of  value. 
And  so  have  we  ours.  A  map  for  the  sehoolr^)om 
should  contain  what  the  cliildren  are  to  learn  ;  cer- 
tainly very  little  if  aught  more.  To  give  into  the 
hands  of  children,  or  hang  up  for  use,  an  overstocked 
map,  is  like  giving  the  children  a  lexicon  instead  of  a 
I'eader.  In  teaching  literature,  we  give  them  selec- 
tions, and  ol)ject  to  complete  works  of  authors.  In 
history,  we  use  mere  skeletons  of  data  and  facts,  and 
supi)ly  the  remainder  by  word  of  mouth.  In  every 
blanch  of  study,  we  leave  the  limits  of  the  matter  of 
instruction  to  the  discretion  of  the  teacher.  Wliv  not 
do  so  in  geography?  Why  should  we  put  up  with 
overloaded  ma[)s  ? 

I  have  asked  the  question  elsewhere,  and  tiie  timid 
answer  came:  ''We  have  to  take  what  the  puljlisiiers 
offer  us."  I  do  not  iM^lieve  this  need  be  the  case. 
The  publisliers  are  merchants.  The  stead}-  force  of 
the  law  of  supply  ami  demand,  and  tiie  sleepless  in- 
stinct of  gain,  determine  what  they  should  offer  for 
sale.  If  such  maps  as  these  *■'  practice  maps  "  were 
wanted  by  a  great  number  of  teachers,  you  may 
depend  upon  it,  they  would  make  their  appearance  in 
due  season.     No:   tin;  f:uiU  lies  with  the  teachers,  and 


2(54      EDUCATIONAL    TOflfS   OF  Till':   DAY. 

with  llic  uniuitural  and  irrational  method  of  teaching 
in  vogue  all  over  the  country  ;  it  lies  with  tin;  school- 
authorities,  who  in  many  cases  labor  under  the  common 
error  that  the  more  a  map  contains,  the  more  perfect  it 
must  be. 

Sensible  teacliers  have  helped  themselves  bj'  resort- 
ing to  the  blackboard.  They  sketched  or  drew  the 
outlines  of  the  map,  traced  the  water-courses  with  blue 
crayon,  and  then  proceeded  as  indicated  l)efore,  —  that 
is,  spread  upon  the  map  liy  degi'ces  all  information 
of  value,  until  the  pupils'  knowledge  was  extended 
enough,  and  their  comprehension  develoi^ed  enough, 
to  make  sensible  use  of  printed  maps.  But  I  have 
noticed  in  these  cases  a  great  waste  of  time,  much  un- 
avoidable inaccuracy  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and 
man}'  misconceptions  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

I  have  little  to  say  upon  the  subject,  as  far  as  it 
concerns  the  upper  grades  of  the  grammar  school  and 
the  high  school.  There  maps  may  be  used  which  are 
liberally  furnished  with  information,  provided  rational 
instruction  has  preceded  in  the  lower  schools.  Teach- 
ers of  higher  grades  have  just  cause  for  complaint. 
Their  pupils  have  not  acquired  a  knowledge  of  geog- 
raphy as  they  should  have  done.  The  memory  (evi- 
dently the  faculty  upon  which  we  have  to  rely  most  in 
teaching  geography)  retains  willingly  only  that  which 
has  gone  through  reason  and  understanding.  What- 
ever the  mind  does  not  grasp  is  difficult  to  remember. 
Not  every  thing  to  be  learned  can  be  understood,  how- 
ever :  still  we  may  make  it  palatable  and  digestible  by 


GEOGliAl'lIV.  265 

connecting  with  it  incidents  of  interest.  So.  for  in- 
stance, a  child  wiio  hears  the  huiglialde  story  wiiich 
led  to  the  naming  of  Cape  Fini.stene,  and  the  trivial 
reason  for  the  naming  of  Cape  Cod,  or  Cape  Farewell, 
or  Cape  Verd,  etc.,  will  not  easily  forget  these  names. 
All  this  is  so  self-evident,  that  I  feel  as  if  I  i>aid  small 
C(jmplimi'nt  to  you  by  repeating  it.  But  I  do  it  to 
l)(>int  out  the  utter  ahsurdity  of  learning  geogi;i[)hY 
from  the  piinted  text.  Here  are  a  few  tidhits  of 
information  as  found  in  some  geographies  :  — 

"  Zenith  and  Nadir  are  two  Araltic  words  impart- 
ing their  own  signification. "  (IIow  lucid  I)  ''Land 
is  either  level  or  diversified  by  elevations  or  depres- 
sions." (IIow  wonderfully  clear  to  children  this  must 
be!)  '^' Commerce  consists  in  the  exchange  of  com- 
modities "  (Is  it  possible?)  "  North  ^Vmerica,  lying- 
in  three  zones,  and  traversed  by  lofty  mountain  ranges, 
is  marked  by  astounding  varieties  of  climate  aiid  pro- 
ductions." (Will  not  this  cause  mental  dyspepsia?) 
"  Extensive  forests  of  deciduous  trees  cover  this  sec- 
lion."  "■  Indian  mounds  of  an  unknown  antiquity  are 
found  in  Georgia."  Verily,  we  cannot  tliaidv  kind 
Piovidence  enough  for  having  gifted  the  hmnan  mem- 
ory with  the  happy  faculty  of  throwing  otf  what  has 
not  gone  through  the  mill  of  reason  and  nndt-rstand- 
ing.  What  a  frightful  waste  of  eneigy  is  tliere  in 
schools  where  such  ini[ialatable  and  indigestilile  mat- 
ter is  set  Ijcfore  the  pupils  who  are  told  to  "  studv  " 
their  geography  lesson  ! 

I  cannot  refrain   I'lom  ipioting  CJoethe  ;  the  tempta- 


26G      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF   THE    DAY. 

tion  is  too  great.  We  find  in  "  Goetz  von  Berlich- 
iiigcii  "  the  following-  CfJiivcrsatioii.  Goetz,  Lord  of 
Jaxthausen,  retiuiis  home,  and  meets  his  son  Carl. 

Carl.'    "  Good-morning,  father!  " 

Goetz  (kisses  him).  "Good-morning,  boy  I  IIow 
have  you  all  spent  your  time?  " 

Carl.  "Well,  good  father.  AuutLe  says  I  was 
right  good." 

Goetz.     "Indeed?" 

Carl.     "  I  have  learned  a  great  deal." 

Goetz.     "Indeed?" 

Carl.  "  Shall  I  tell  j^ou  the  story  of  the  good 
boy?" 

Goetz.     "  After  dinner  ;  not  now." 

Caii.     "  I  know  something  else." 

Goetz.     "  What  may  that  be?  " 

Carl.  "Jaxthausen  is  the  name  of  a  village  and 
castle  on  the  river  Jast,  belonging  to  the  Lords  of  Ber- 
lichingeu  for  the  last  two  hundred  years." 

Goetz.     "  Do  yon  know  the  Lord  of  Berliehingeu?" 

(Carl  looks  at  him  in  mute  astonishment.) 

Goetz  (aside).  "The  boy  has  become  so  learned, 
that  he  does  uot  know  his  owu  father."  (To  the  boy.) 
"  To  whom  does  Jaxthausen  belong?  " 

Carl  (reciting).  "Jaxthausen  is  the  name  of  a 
village  and  castle  on  the  river  Jaxt  "  — 

Goetz.  "I  did  not  ask  for  that."  (Aside.)  "I 
knew  all  the  paths,  roads,  and  fords,  before  I  knew  the 
name  of  river,  castle,  and  village." 

Now  I  do  not  mean  to  accuse  the  teachers  of  to-day 


GEoauAPiiv.  2G7 

of  teaching  with  such  rcsiiUs  as  Goetho  hero  describes 
it  to  have  been  done  in  the  Middle  Ages,  lint  I  nu'an 
to  state,  tliat  we  are  constantly  sul)jected  t<j  the  tenij)- 
tation  to  thus  teach  geography,  as  long  as  we  have 
text-books.  AV'hat  can  a  teaclier  mean  wIrmi  assigning 
a  lesson  in  such  a  book?  What  else  than  U)  commit 
verbally  to  memory  such  and  such  a  page?  That  this 
is  literally  true,  is  seen  the  next  day,  when  he  "■  hears 
his  classes."  He  conducts  recitations.  What  is  a 
recitation?  Webster  and  Worcester  say,  '•  A  recitation 
is  a  repetition  of  something  committed  to  memory." 

Now,  I  certainly  do  not  denounce  recitations  in  geog- 
raphy, or  in  any  other  study,  for  I  want  my  pupils  to 
frequently  repeat  what  they  have  learned  ;  but  I  expect 
and  require  them  to  do  it  in  their  own  words.  A  defi- 
nition wrought  out  in  the  mind  of  the  child  l)y  his  own 
self-activity,  even  if  it  do  not  cover  the  entirety  of 
the  sul)ject,  is  vastly  better  than  one  committed  from 
the  printed  page. 

To  sum  up.  The  ideal  miitliorl  in  the  lower  grades, 
of  course,  is  to  let  the  children  make  the  acquaintance 
of  ^Mother  Nature  herself.  That  being  out  of  the 
question  in  many  cases,  we  can  imitate  her,  and  mould 
those  objects  which  will  give  the  primary  notions  and 
ideas  absolutely  necessary  for  the  subsequent  alistract 
instruction.  When  these  primary  ideas  an'  well  estab- 
lished, when  the  child  has  become  ae(pi;iinted  with  the 
position  of  the  sehoolhouse.  y:ird.  and  neighborhood, 
with  the  cardinal  points,  with  the  city  and  its  vieinity, 
with   the   river,  or  the  lake,  as  tin-  c-ise  in.i\-  be.  wlu'ii 


2G8      EDUCATIONAL    TOJ'K'S    OF   77/ A;    DAY. 

he  has  gained  some  (leliuite  i<h'as  of  distance,  when  he 
is  ahU;  to  ecMnitreiiend  the  relation  between  reality  and 
its  representation,  then  such  practiee-niaps  as  I  have 
described,  both  relief  and  Ihit-snrfaeed  nia[)s,  and,  in 
the  absence  of  these,  the  l)lackboard,  may  be  used. 
We  must  remember  that  "  a  good  teacher  is  known 
from  the  intensity  of  attention  with  which  tlie  [)upils 
follow  his  instruction,  and  from  the  amount  of  crayon 
he  uses."  And,  as  to  text-books,  let  them  l)e  atlases, 
containing  no  text  whatever.  The  maps  should  be 
elementary  maps,  not  overstocked  with  data  and  letter- 
ing of  all  kinds,  tending  to  blur  the  child's  image  of 
the  respective  country'  or  section.  Let  these  maps  be 
accompanied  by  illustrations  of  cities,  landscapes, 
vegetable  productions,  animals,  modes  of  communica- 
tion, occupations,  buildings,  etc.  Bat  do  axoay  with 
the  terrible  temptation  to  make  the  pupils  thoughtless 
prattlers. 

HISTORY  AND   GEOGRAPHY,   THE   SIAMESE 
TWINS. 

I. 

John.  —  "Teacher,  I  wonder  why  the  southern 
boundary-  of  the  State  of  Michigan  is  not  one  continued 
straight  line." 

Answer. —  ""Well,  my  bo}',  thereby  hangs  a  tale. 
Do  you  know  the  boundaries  of  the  former  North- 
western Territory?  " 

John.  —  "  Yes,  sir  :  it  was  all  the  land  north  of  the 


GEOGIiAPnV 


269 


Ohio,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  south  of  the  hikes,  and 
west  of  Penns3ivania." 

Answer.  —  ''When,  in  the  year  l.s02,  a  snflicient 
number  of  people  had  settled  in  that  i)art  of  the  North- 
western Territor}^  now  known  as  the  State  of  Oiiio, 
to  ask  for  admission  into  the  Union,  the  request  was 


granted  hy  Congress.  It  made  very  little  difliculty  to 
settle  the  houndaries  of  the  new  State.  The  western 
l)oun(hiry  of  P»'iinsylvania  was  a  survt-yed  line:  that 
nalurally  liecanie  l\w  hoiindaiy  also  of  Ohio.  On  tht> 
south  tiicy  liad  the  Ohio  River  as  a  boundary,  beeause 
south  of  tliat  the  States  of  \'irginia  and  Kentueky  were 
situated.     On  the  north  Lake  Erie  was  a  natural  bound- 


270      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

ary.  All  that  i-(Mnaiiic(l  to  be  settled  was  a  western 
1X11(1  partly  also  a  northern  bonndary.  Now.  that 
partial  bonndary  ^Yas  found  by  drawing  a  straight  line 
from  the  most  western  extremity  of  Lake  Erie  to  the 
most  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Michigan  [see  the 
above  cut].  The  western  boundary  was  found  by 
starting  at  the  Ohio  River  near  the  mouth  of  the  Bis: 
Miami  River  and  going  northward  on  a  line  with  the 
meridian  until  the  line  was  struck  which  was  drawn 
between  the  two  lakes,  Erie  and  ^Michigan.  Thus  the 
boundaiy  of  Oliio  was  settled,  and  the  people  were 
satisfied. 

"  When,  fourteen  3^ears  later,  in  181G,  the  Territory 
of  Indiana  expressed  the  desire  to  be  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  State,  Congress  complied  with  the 
request,  suggesting  that  the  surveyed  line  between 
the  two  lakes  —  namely,  between  the  two  extremities 
of  the  two  lakes  —  be  taken  for  the  northern  boundary, 
and  that  from  the  point  of  the  most  southern  extension 
of  Lake  Michigan  a  line  be  drawn  on  a  line  with  the 
meridian  until  the  Wabash  River  was  reached.  [These 
lines  will  be  found  in  the  above  cut  as  represented  by 
solid  black  lines.]  But  the  people  then  residing  in  the 
Territory  clamored  for  a  more  equitable  adjustment  of 
the  boundary  of  the  new  State.  'For,'  said  they, 
'  the  lines  suggested  defraud  us  entirely  of  lake-front.' 
This  w^as  a  well-founded  objection  ;  and  therefore  the 
northern  Ijoundar}'  was  extended  somewhat  toward 
the  north,  and  the  western  somewhat  toward  the  west. 
[Indicated  in   the  above  cut  by  dotted  lines.]     This 


CEOdllAPJIV.  271 

gave  llie  State  of  Indiana  a  siillicu-nt  streteh  of  lake- 
front ;  and  the  present  town,  Miehigan  City,  situated 
there,  proves  the  wisdom  of  the  step  taken  by  the 
boundary  commission. 

'•  When,  some  years  afterward,  the  Territory  of 
Illinois  was  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union,  the  old 
originally  surveyed  line  between  the  two  lakes,  it  was 
suggested,  should  be  extended  to  the  Mississipi)i  Kivcr, 
and  thus  the  northern  boundary  of  Illinois  settled. 
This  met  with  the  same  objection  mentioned  above. 
The  i)eoi)le  of  Illinois  claimed  a  portion  of  lake-front: 
therefore  the  northern  l)Oundary  of  Illinois  was  estab- 
lished considerably  north  of  the  original  line." 

John.  —  "That  sounds  reasonable;  but  wh}'  should 
the  so-called  Su|)eri()r  peninsula  [see  cut,  the  shaded 
portion  of  land]  Itelong  to  the  State  of  Michigan?  It 
seems  as  if  by  rights  it  should  l)elong  to  Wisconsin." 

Ansiver. — "Well,  my  bo}',  tlii'rel)y  hangs  another 
tale.  In  the  year  183;"),  the  State  of  Ohio  and  the 
Territory  of  IMichigan  had  quite  a  heated  dispute  over 
certain  Iwundary  questions.  A  strip  of  laud  was 
claimed  by  both.  Roth  governors  called  out  the 
militia,  and  war  was  declared  between  the  two  'great 
powers  :  '  but  it  did  not  come  to  any  l)lo\vs.  Congress 
mediated,  and  settled  the  dis|)ute  by  offering  Michigan 
the  peninsula  south  of  Lake  Superior,  and  promising 
the  Territory  aduiission  into  the  Union  as  a  Slate. 
The  government  of  the  Territory  accepted  IIk'  terms, 
and  relincpiished  its  elnini  upon  Ohio.  'Hiis  riiliculous 
S(piabble  nunlc  a  great  J'urure  at  the  time,  liut  is  now 


272      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 


forgotten,  as  every  other  sqiial)l)le  will  be  forgotten. 
The  histories  do  not  speak  of  it,  since  history  is  a 
narration  of  memoral)le  events ;  and,  no  menioraljle 
event  having  happened  in  connection  with  this  occnr- 
rence,  history  has  had  nothing  to  record.  Yet  withal 
Michigan  owns  that  peninsula,  my  bo}',  and  don't  you 
forget  it." 

II. 

John.  —  "Here    is    another  odd    corner,  professor. 
AVhat  is  the  object  of  this  triangle?  "  (pointing  towaid 


the  triangle  belonging  to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania, 
bordering  on  Lake  Erie,  on  which  the  city  of  Erie  is 
situated.) 

Ansiver.  —  "Well,  my  boy,  there  is  but  little  of  a 


GEonnAPHY.  273 

tale  connected  with  that.  "When  the  original  Colonics, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia,  Caro- 
lina, and  so  on.  settled  their  honndaries,  tliey  took 
certain  parallels  for  honndary-lines.  It  so  happened 
that  the  northern  l)Oinidary  of  Pennsylvania  reached 
Lake  Erie  at  the  same  point  where  now  its  western 
bonndai-y  reaches  it.  This  de[irived  Peinisylvania 
entirely  of  lake-front ;  and  in  order  to  acqnire  some, 
it  was  obliged  to  pnrchase  from  the  Colon}'  of  New 
York,  afterward  State  of  New  York,  tliat  strip  of 
land  known  as  the  Pennsylvania  triangle.  It  was  of 
great  importance  to  the  State  that  it  should  have  lake- 
front  ;  for  at  the  time,  when  there  were  no  railroads, 
navigation  on  the  lakes,  rivers,  and  canals  was  of 
greater  importance  than  it  is  now,  although  at  present 
navigation  may  be  greater  than  it  nsed  to  be.  "Wliat 
Pennsylvania  paid  for  the  strip  of  land,  is  immaterial." 

John. — ''But  there  is  another  oddity  about  the 
boundaries  of  Pennsylvania.  I  notice  that  there  is 
between  Delaware  and  Penns3lvania  a  perfect  arc.  Is 
not  tliat  rather  an  arbitrary  way  of  establishing  a 
Ijoundary  ? 

Aityiver.  —  '.'  Yes,  I  tliink  it  is,  and  'arl)itrary  '  is  the 
pr()i)er  term  in  this  case  ;  for,  when  a  dispute  arose 
al)(jut  the  establishment  of  that  boundary  (the  survey- 
ors at  that  time  were  not  of  the  highest  type  of  civil 
engineers,  and  had  very  rude  instruments),  some  one 
api)lie(l  a  cumi)ass  on  the  )nap,  setting  one  foot  of  it 
at  a  certain  i)n)jt'cti()n  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware 
Iliver,  and  described  a   perfect   arc.     This   arbitrary 


274      EnUCAllONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DylY 


line  happened  to  be  such  a  happy  compromise,  which 
divided  all  claims  equally,  that  it  was  immediately 
adopted  by  tlie  contesting  parties. 

"  And  now,  my  boy,  look  at  Alabama.  Why  should 
Florida  claim  so  much  coast  which  apparently  belongs 
to  Alabama?  And  why,  again,  should  it  deprive 
Georgia  entirely  of  an  approach  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico?  There  is  a  question  for  you  to  settle.  You 
can  easily  answer  it  by  consulting  the  history  that 
refers  to  the  acquisition  of  Florida  by  the  Unitea 
States.     Do  it,  and  report  to-morrow." 

III. 

John.  —  "I  discovered  a  curious  '  freak  of  nature,' 
professor,  if  so  I  may  be  permitted  to  call  it.     It  is  a 


'  horn '  on  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States, 
which  seems  so  out  of  place,  that  I  cannot  account  for 
it.     It  appears,  the  boundary  crosses  one  section    of 


GEOGRAPHY.  275 

the  Lake  of  llie  "Woods,  and  encloses  a  triangular 
peninsula,  and  tlien  goes  soutliwaici  till  it  reaches  the 
foity-uinth  parallel,  along  whieh  it  proceeds  till  it 
touches  the  Pacidc.  I  ain  strongly  tempted  to  ask, 
'  why  is  this  thusly?  '  " 

Answer.  —  "Well,  my  boy,  ever}-  historical  event 
leaves  its  traces  behind.  It  is  in  history  very  much  as 
it  is  in  nature,  and  cause  and  eflPect  are  ever  noticeable. 
I  will  deviate  a  little,  and  give  you  an  illustration  from 
the  Darwinian  theory.  You  know  that  during  the  last 
century  the  coats  of  soldiers  were  worn  in  a  fashion 
which  required  two  l)uttons  in  the  back  of  the  coat. 
The  front  of  the  skirt  was  folded  back,  and  fastened 
by  two  buttons.  You  will  recollect  having  seen  a 
picture  of  Frederick  the  Great,  or  of  Washington,  in 
their  uniforms  ;  and  there  you  will  have  noticed  the 
fashion  referred  to.  In  our  time,  that  fashion  has 
disappeared,  and  the  skirt  of  the  frock-coat  is  per- 
mitted to  fall.  The  buttons  still  remain,  for  no  prac- 
tical use  that  we  can  see.  They  are  a  remnant  of  a 
former  fashion,  just  as  the  small  how  which  we  fasten 
U)  our  shirt-collar  by  a  hook  is  the  remnant  of  a  cravat 
which  used  to  be  several  yards  long,  and  was  wound 
around  I  he  neck  ever  so  often. 

'*  Now,  this  horn  on  our  northern  boundary  is  also  a 
remnant,  or,  let  me  saj'.  a  witness,  of  certain  historical 
events  of  interest  to  us  as  Americans.  Let  me  first 
say,  that  liic  soiuccs  of  the  Mississippi  Kivci-  wcie  not 
known  at  tlic  time  wiien  the  IMississi|)pi  was  made  tiie 
l)oundary  between  the  great  French  [)ossessio:j,  called 


276      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICS   OF  THE   DAT. 

Louisiana,  and  our  original  thirteen  States:  perhaps  it 
was  supposed  to  rise  from  the  Lake  of  tlie  Woods. 
It  was  settled  l)y  the  boundary  commission,  convened 
in  Paris,  that  the  boundary  between  Louisiana  and  the 
United  States  should  be  the  Mississippi  Kiver ;  and 
the  line  should  be  followed  till  it  reached  a  point 
49°  40' ;  that  is,  forty-nine  degrees  and  forty  minutes 
north  latitude.  It  is  interesting  to  hear  why  tlie  forty- 
ninth  degree  of  latitude  was  chosen  ;  namely,  because 
it  IS  the  latitude  of  Paris.  Now,  if  you  will  please 
notice,  my  boy,  this  horn  is  exactly  forty  minutes  of 
a  degree  in  length.  That  forty  minutes  has  never 
been  called  in  question. 

"  But  another  thing  greatly  agitated  the  minds  of 
the  citizens  of  the  United  States  during  Polk's  admin- 
istration. It  was  the  boundary  lietween  the  laud  west 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  British  America,  The 
United  States  had  claimed  some  territory  north  of  this 
line,  as  far  as  Alaska,  latitude  54°  40' ;  and  Great 
Britain  had  claimed  the  territory  south  of  this  line  to 
the  Columbia  River.  A  large  party  in  the  United 
States  preferred  war  with  Great  Britain"  to  giving  up 
the  American  claim.  They  demanded  '  Fifty-four 
forty,  or  fight.'  But  by  a  treaty  both  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  gave  up  part  of  their  claims, 
and  took  a  middle  line  as  the  l)oundary." 

"A  verj'  alliterative  battle-cr}',  to  be  sure,"  says 
John. 

"You  know  3'ourself  what  parallel  was  finally  agreed 
upon  as  a  compromise.     But  the  curious  thing  that  I 


GEOGUAPIIY.  211 

call  3'our  attention  to  is,  that  the  triangular  part  out 
off  by  the  horn  rofcrrod  to  is  not  a|)i)roachal)h'  from 
the  L'niteil  States,  except  hy  water.  [Con.swlt  tiie 
foregoing  cut.] 

"  Now,  Johi:,  just  look  back  into  history.  Think  of 
the  dark  days  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  our  I'nion. 
See  the  sturdy,  honest,  enthusiastic  lien  Franklin,  in 
his  simi)le  Quaker  garments,  at  the  sumptuous  court  of 
Louis  XVI.  in  the  ga}'  city  of  Paris,  fighting  with  the 
tenacity  of  a  true  Yankee  for  his  own  country  and  for 
as  much  territory  as  could  be  wrested  from  England 
Spain,  and  France.  'IMial  little  notch  in  tiie  Canadian 
boundary  is  a  memento  of  a  nol)le  time,  full  of  piom- 
ise  ;  of  great  men  full  of  noble  virtues.  It  is  a  relic 
of  1783." 

IV. 

John. — "  Is  there  a  tale  connected  with  the  notch 
in  the  boundary  between  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
professor?  It  seems  odd  that  the  straight  line  from 
the  coast  to  the  Tennessee  River,  some  seven  hundred 
miles  in  length,  should  not  have  been  continued  till  it 
reached  the  Mississippi  River." 

Ansiver.  —  "Well,  my  boy,  this  notch,  a?  j'ou  call 
it,  certainl}'  tioubles  all  common  ideiis  of  the  eternal 
fitness  of  things.  IJut  tliere  is  no  exciting  talc  con- 
nected with  it,  unless  an  example  of  wise,  not  to  say 
shrewd,  statesmanship  may  excite  our  curiosity.  Tiie 
line  between  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  is  not  at  all 
a  straight  line,  not  even  from  the  ('iiinlxM'lanil  .Aloiui- 
taiiis    to    tile   Tennessee   Iviver,   init  is  very   iiieguhir, 


278      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   Till':    DA  V. 

varying  between  3G°  31'  25"  and  3G°  40'  4o"  ;  thouoh 
our  school  geographies  and  maps  represent  tliat  line  as 


being  so  beautifnlly  straight,  that  it  might  make  a 
mathematician's  heart  glad.  I  searched  a  long  time 
for  the  cause  of  the  irregularity  referred  to,  until,  by 


GEOaUAl'UY.  270 

the  rare  kindness  of  a  fik'nd  in  Tennessee,  I  was  i)ut 
in  possession  of  facts  which  exi)Uun  it. 

''  Capt.  U.  C.  Garrett  of  Nashville  published  a  pam- 
phlet, some  years  ago,  entitled  '  The  Northern  Honnd- 
ary  of  Tennessee,'  from  which  I  glean  the  following 
essential  points  :  — 

"  'The  territory  now  occupied  by  the  two  States  — 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  —  was  formerly  part  of  the 
States  of  Virginia  and  Noith  Carolina.  Kentucky  is 
the  daughter  of  Virginia,  Tennessee  the  daughter  of 
North  Carolina.  It  is  not  necessary  to  refer  back 
to  the  colonial  history,  and  see  how  the  dividing  line 
was  shifted  repeatedly.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  it  had 
been  finally  fixed  at  thirty-six  degrees  thirty  minutes 
north  latitude,  as  early  as  the  year  1728.  After  three 
hundred  and  twenty-nine  mili's  of  this  boundary  (begin- 
ning at  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic)  had  been  surveyed 
from  time  to  time,  and  marked,  no  other  step  was  taken 
in  the  location  of  the  boundary  until  after  the  beginning 
of  the  Revolution.     I  quote  Capt.  Garrett :  — 

"■'In  1779,  urged  b}'  pressing  demands  from  their 
Western  settlers,  the  legislatures  of  the  two  States 
(Virginia  and  North  Carolina)  found  time,  in  the 
midst  of  the  Revolutionary  struggle,  to  appoint  a 
commission  to  extend  their  boundary.  The  commis- 
sioners, Henderson  and  \V.  15.  Smith  on  the  part  of 
North  Carolina,  and  Walker  and  Daniel  Smith  on  tiie 
part  of  Virginia,  met  in  September,  1771).  They 
failed  to  find  the  point  at  which  a  former  commission 
endetl  their  line    on  Steep  Rock  Creek.     ^Memoranda 


280      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

of  agreement  were  entered  on  the  books  of  botli 
parties  to  the  effect  that  the  pouit  of  observation 
was  in  north  latitude  30°  ol'  2')",  and  in  west  longi- 
tude 81°  12".  They  ran  due  south  one  mile  to  a 
point  supposed  to  be  in  latitude  3G°  30',  "  to  the 
satisfaction  of  all." 

"  '  From  this  point  they  ran  a  line,  which  they 
supposed  to  be  due  west,  about  forty-five  miles  to 
Carter's  Valley.  Here  a  disagreement  occurred,  and 
the  two  surveying  parties  separated,  running  parallel 
lines  about  two  miles  apart ;  the  line  of  the  Carolina 
commissioners,  generally  known  as  Henderson' s  Line, 
being  north  of  the  line  of  the  Virginia  commissioners, 
commonly  called  Walker's  Line.  The  Carolina  com- 
missioners continued  their  line  as  far  as  Cumberland 
Mountains.  At  this  point,  they  abandoned  the  work, 
after  sending  a  letter  of  protest  against  Walker's  Line. 
The  Virginia  commissioners  continued  to  Tennessee 
River,  and  then,  although  not  authorized  to  extend 
the  line  beyond  Tennessee  River,  proceeded  to  mark 
its  termination  on  the  Mississippi ;  but  did  not  survey 
the  intervening  distance. 

"  '  Li  consequence  of  the  failure  to  make  clue  allow- 
ance for  the  variation  of  the  needle.  Walker's  Line  de- 
flected continuously  to  the  north.  Either  on  account  of 
the  imperfection  of  their  astronomical  instruments,  or 
from  a  failure  to  test  their  work  by  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  astronomical  o])servations,  the  commissioners 
seemed  not  to  detect,  or  at  least  did  not  correct,  this 
constant    northward   deflection.     Walker's   Line   first 


GEOGRAPHY.  281 

touched  Tennessee  near  hititiule  3G°  34'.  and  readied 
Tennessee  River  near  latitude  3G°  40',  more  than 
twelve  miles  too  f(ir  vorth  in  a  direct  line,  or  about 
seventeen  milea  by  ivay  of  the  river.  This  fact  has 
been  established  b}'  subse(iuent  surveys  with  more 
accurate  instruments.  Henderson's  Line,  running 
two  miles  north  of  "Walker's  Line,  was  still  further 
wrong.'  " 

The  line  reall}-^  varies  from  the  coast  to  Tennessee 
River,  between  latitude  3G°  29'  54"  and  36°  40'  4o", 
a  difference  of  about  eleven  minutes.  Of  course,  wlien 
subsequently  the  two  States  (Kentuck}'  and  Tennessee) 
were  obliged  to  adjust  the  annoying  disputes  arising 
from  these  irregularities,  it  was  (uially  agreed  upon  to 
accept  "Walker's  Line  as  far  as  Tennessee  River,  and 
from  there  to  the  Mississippi  locate  the  boundary 
upon  the  latitude  3G"  30'.  This  caused  the  "  notch." 
The  agreement  was  arrived  at  onlj'  after  several 
years  of  bickering  and  contention  between  the  two 
States. 

The  many  changes  from  the  true  line  30°  30'  can  be 
accurately  seen  on  the  latest  map  of  the  General  Land 
Oflice.  But  even  this  map  fails  to  give  location  to 
the  V-shaped  notch  marked  in  the  foregoing  sketch- 
map.  I  am  unable  to  account  for  it,  nor  does  Capt. 
Garrett  mention  it.  This  little,  and  perhaps,  for  all 
practical  purposes  of  school  education,  insignilicant 
trifle,  is  not  the  only  one  found  on  the  map.  INIassa- 
chusetts  shows  a  siuiilai-  oddity  in  its  southern  line. 
The  mention  of  this  may,  perlKi[)s,  induce  some  one 


282      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

of  the  readers  of  this  article  to  give  :i  reason  for  the 
notch,  or  ''show  cause  why  the  line  sIkjuKI  not  be 
straijiht. ' ' 


PARALLELS  AND  MERIDIANS. 

This  subject  needs  an  introductory  lesson.  The 
following  suggestions  have  been  found  very  service- 
able.    Clear  the  board.     Make  a  large  parallelogram. 


• 


Then  make  a  dot  within  the  figure,  it  is  ininiateiial 
where.  Ask  the  class  to  locate  the  dot.  The  answer 
will  come,  "It  is  difficult  to  tell.*'  Some  one  will 
venture  to  say,  "  It  is  a  little  toward  the  right-hand 
upper  corner,"  which  is  too  indefinite  a  statement. 
Then  make  a  number  of  i)arallel  vertical  lines  which 
divide   the    figure   into  strips,  and   number  the  lines, 

beginning  with  1 .     Again  make  a 
/  jjy  Vfe  7 1 0'o>ni>i   fiot  in  one  of  the  strips,  and  ask 

to  locate  it.     This  time  the  pu[)il 

will  say,  "  It  is  between  lines  9 

and  10." 
Then  cross  the  vertical  by  a  number  of  horizontal 
lines.  Number  them  also.  Now  it  is  easy  to  locate 
the  dot.  It  will  be  found  to  be  between  the  lines  9 
and  10,  and  between  the  horizontal  lines  3  and  4. 
Make  a  number  of  other  dots,  squares,  stars,  rings,  and 
triangles,  within  the  figure  thus  prepared,  and  let  them 


GEOGIiAPl/y. 


288 


all  I>e  lofntccl.  Now  iiitt'iriii)t  tlu'  K'sson  to  \ve(l;j;c  in 
a  little  necessary  language  and  spelling.  The  woids 
horizontal^  jierponfh'cKhtr^  vertiaiL  and  parallel  should 
be  placed  on  the  board,  underneath  each  other.  Then 
their  definitions  and  de- 
rivations are  given  :  hor- 
izontal, from  horizon; 
perpendicular,  from 
j)e>id,  to  hang  (dei)end, 
to  be  suspended)  ;  ver- 
tical, from  vertex,  the 
Itighest  point,  the  top.  The  best  illustration  to  make 
the  words  horizon  and  horizontal  clear,  I  have  found  in 
this :  — 

Picture  a  plate,  say  a  butter-dish,  with  a  globe  over 
it.  Say,  suppose  a  fly  to  sit  in  the  middle  of  that  dish. 
His  vision  will  be  bounded  b^-  the  line  where  'the  glol>e 
touches  the  edge  of  the  i)late.  See  geogra[»hy  :  "  The 
horizon  is  the  line  where  the  sky  seenjs  to 
touch  the  earth."  The  perpendicular  can  he 
illustiatCKl  by  the  pendulum  of  the  clock  in  the 
schoolroom. 

Now  erase  your  figtne,  draw  a  circle,  and  put  a  line 
from  pole  to  \)o\e  and  the  e<iuator  in.  (See  cuts  on 
p.  284.)  Kxplain  that  the  words  equal  and  equator 
are  cousins,  not  very  far  removed  either.  Draw  nine 
parallels,  cvu'ved  lines,  and  say  you  have  not  the  time 
to  make  ninety  of  theni,  each  one.  therefore,  is  to 
represent  tlie  tentli.  Show  them,  that  froiii  one  pole  to 
the  equator  there  are  ninety  of  such  parallels,  and  again 


284      EDUCATIONAL    TOT'TCS   OF  THE    DAY. 

from  the  equator  to  llic  other  pole  ninety,  and  so  on, 
luakuig  three  hundred  and  sixty  in  all.  Then  intro- 
duce the  meridians,  also  curved  lines,  meeting  at  tiie 
poles.  They  being  all  of  the  same  size,  show  that  it 
is  difficult  to  tell  where  to  begin  to  count.  With  the 
parallels  it  is  easy  :  beginning  at  the  equator,  we  go 
north    and   south.     Tell  that  iu   former  3'ears  nearly 


every  nation  bad  its  own  meridinn,  the  English  that 
of  Greenwich,  the  Americans  that  of  Washington,  the 
French  that  of  Paris,  the  Germans  thot  passing  tiuough 
the  island  of  Feno ;  but  lliat  in  a  convention  ji' 
Washington  the  representatives  of  the  different  civilized 
nations  bad  agreed  to  adopt  a  uniform  first  meridian, 
namely  that  passing  through  the  observatory  at  Green- 
wich near  London.  Show  tiiat  vierklicut  is  a  combi- 
nation or  corruption  of  two  words,  naau-ly  medius  and 
dies;  the  first  meaning  middle,  iJie  second  day,  hence 
midday.     Consult  Webster,  wlio  says,  "  Varro  testifies 


aKoauM'iiv.  285 

that  this  word   was   originally   spelled  medidies,   and 
that  he  had  seen  it  tluis  on  a  sun-dial." 

Now,  concentration  of  effort  will  lead  us  to  the 
question,  Wliy  should  the  nuniher  of  parallels,  as  well 
as  meridians,  be  three  hundred  and  sixt}  ?  ^lental 
aritlnnetic  will  come  in  for  a  little  share  of  attention, 
and  it  is  the  eha[)ter  of  divisihility  of  numbers  which 
will  come  in  handsomely.  The  number  three  hundred 
and  sixty  was  not  chosen  arbitrarily,  but  for  a  good 
reason  ;  namel}-,  because  it  can  be  divided  by  one,  two, 
three,  four,  five,  six,  eight,  nine,  and  ten,  in  Inic,  by 
all  numl:)crs  within  ten,  except  seven.  Never  mind 
whether  you  are  the  teacher  of  arithmetic,  or  not :  let 
the  pupils  verify  the  statement  that  the  number  three 
hundred  and  sixty  is  divisible  by  the  numbers  men- 
tioned. It  will  lead  them  to  see  that  all  knowledge  is 
more  or  less  related  ;  and  by  thus  connecting  different 
branches,  you  assist  in  deepening  previously  gained 
cognitions,  or  opening  vistas  into  other  compartments 
of  knowledge  whoae  doors  were  locked  before. 

A    POSER. 

\\v.  weie  lo(»kiMg  u\}  <»n  the  map  the  boundaries  of 
ccrlani  States,  one  da}',  in  a  C  grammar  class.  Noti- 
cing llie  nnmbcrof  mountain  I'anges  drawn  across  the 
l»oundarv-liue,  or  rather  noticing  that  the  line  crossed 
a  jango  of  mountains,  1  nski'd,  '•  Does  not  this  bound- 
ary line  in  reality  go  up  and  down?  In  other  words, 
is  It  not  diversilied  by  mountains  and  valK-ys?" 
An.swei:   •■  Yes,  of  course."     (.Question:   "Then,  how 


236      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS  OF  THE  DAY. 


is  it,  that  the  map-raaker  can  draw  the  southern  line  of 
Pennsylvania,  for  instance,  with  the  aid  of  a  ruler?" 
That  question  was  a  poser.  We  turned  to  other 
states,    the  surface  of   which    we    knew    was   greatl}' 


..<ji'^ 


■"Si^         ..# 


diversified,  and  not  as  level  as  that  of  Illinois.  Even 
the  most  precocious  bo^'s  and  girls  of  the  class  began 
to  look  solemn. 

I  then  proceeded  to  give  them  this  problem  :  "  The 
north  side  of  a  farm  is  perfectU'  level ;  the  south  side 


is  diversified  by  gullies  and  knolls.  The  owner  intends 
to  build  a  picket-fence  both  on  the  north  and  south 
sides.  Question  :  On  which  side  will  he  need  the 
greater  number  of  pickets?"  And  in  order  to  make 
the  problem  verj'  clear,  I  hastily  drew  the  above  dia- 


GEOGRAPIir. 


287 


gram  on  the  board.  Tlie  class  agreed  instanth',  that, 
for  buikliiig  the  fence  on  the  south  side,  a  greater 
number  of  pickets  was  needed,  the  distance  being  so 
much  greater. 

Then  I  completed  the  diagram,  as  is  showu  in  Fig.  3  ; 
and  the  astoni.shn)ent  of  the  class  was  a  sight  worth 
seeinor  when  thev  discovered  that  the  numlier  of  pickets 


was  the  same  in  both  fences.  I  permitted  them  to 
laugh  to  their  heart' s  content  over  their  own  mistake, 
and  then  I  showed  them  the  relation  between  this 
illustration,  and  the  first  question  of  the  lesson ; 
nameh\  How  can  a  State  line  be  represented  as  a 
straight  line  on  a  flat-surfaced  map,  when  in  reality  it 
is  diversified  by  huge  elevations  and  deep  depressions? 


LIFE   CONTRADICTING    THE   SCHOOL-MASTER. 

Are  you  aware,  dear  reader,  that  there  is  in  our 
pi'csent  mode  of  teaching  geography  something  wholly 
incompatible  with  the  requirements  of  life?  One  of 
tile  most  important  principles  of  instrut-lion  is  :  Wiiat- 
ever  you  teach,  teach  it  with  a  view  toward  its  future 
use  and  practicability.  Heed  life's  demands.  If  y<ni 
do  not,  you  may  be,  nay  will  be,  blamed  fur  neglL-cling 


288      F.DUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY'. 

a  part  of  your  duty  which  is  of  no  mean  importance. 
The  ofteu-heard  appeal,  that  the  formal  aim  of  educa- 
tion should  be  considered  as  more  valuable  than  the 
material  aim,  has  but  an  infirm  foundation.  It  is  sim- 
ply a  preposterous  prevarication.  The  great  number 
of  graduates  who  are  flat  failures  in  business,  and  the 
numerous  cases  of  learned  men  who  are  as  helpless 
as  children  in  business,  preach  louder  than  the  most 
eloquent  apostle  of  modern  education. 

Behind  that  plea,  is  hidden  a  most  lamentable  ped- 
agogical error.  A  master  who  requires  his  pupils  to 
learn  by  heart,  verbatim  et  liter((tim,  one  text-book 
after  another,  one  rule  after  another,  may  plead  the 
wonderful  exercise  it  gives  to  the  memory,  may  plead 
the  a.stouishing  development  of  this  one  faculty  ;  but 
he  can  never,  and  I  believe  ivill  never,  plead  that 
the  harmonious  growth  of  all  the  pupils'  faculties  is 
assisted  by  such  practice.  On  the  contrary,  the  mem- 
ory, in  this  case,  is  fed  at  the  expense  of  all  the 
other  faculties,  which  are  thereby  dwarfed  and  stunted. 
Besides,  that  the  same  exercise  may  be  had  by  com- 
mitting all  the  advertisements  of  a  daily  paper,  or  the 
Bible  read  backwards,  without  an  iota  of  practical  use 
in  after-life,  perhaps,  never  occurs  to  him. 

It  is  one  of  the  postulates  of  modern  education, 
that  the  memory  is  best  developed  when  exercised 
indirectly. 

Behind  that  plea  of  aiding  the  formal  part  of  edu- 
cation at  the  expense  of  the  material  and  practical 
part,  the  master  may  hide  himself,  who  exercises  his 


aEOGUAPiiY.  289 

pupils'  inp;ennity  and  aritlimcticnl  skill  l>y  giving  tbom 
[)rol)lenis  in  which  the  price  of  a  cow  is  six  cents, 
and  that  of  a  beefsteak  sixty  dollars.  I  saw  such  a 
problem  on  the  blaekboard  not  long  ago;  the  answer 
was,  "  Cost  of  house  and  lot,  three  dollars  and  seven- 
teen cents." 

Now.  to  come  to  the  point  which  I  intemled  to  l)ring 
out,  much  of  what  we  teach  in  geography'  is  iisflcs.s 
ballast.  For  instance:  It  is  required,  in  many  sc1k)o1s, 
to  burden  the  memory  of  children  with  an  endh'ss 
list  of  tributary  rivers,  of  little  if  any  importance. 
Did  it  ever  occur  to  3'ou,  fair  reader,  that  in  life,  in 
the  intercourse  with  our  fellow-men,  we  scarcely  ever 
mention  rivers,  excei)t  when  they  are  navigable  l)y 
steamboats,  or  cause  troultle  by  inundation?  If  a 
business  man  mentions  a  small  river,  it  is  perhaps 
in  connection  with  his  fishing  excursion  ;  but  ask  him 
whether  he  would  have  his  boy  taught  the  name  and 
course  of  that  river,  and  his  answer  will  be  a  decided 
and  sharp  "  No,"  and  he  will  invarial)ly  add,  "  Teach 
him  more  useful  things  than  such  trash." 

On  the  other  hand,  see  how  often  we  mention  the 
railioads.  Every  newspaper  reader  is  fnmiliar  with 
tl.e  New-York  Central,  the  Pan  Handle  Koute,  the 
Ualliniore  and  Ohio,  the  Lake  Shore  and  ^Michigan 
Sontlieni.  the  Queen  and  Crescent  Route  (Cincinnati 
Southern),  the  Union  Pacific,  etc.  :  I  need  not  emi- 
meratc  any  further.  Don't  you  think,  my  reader,  it 
would  be  wiser  to  eliminate  from  our  eoui-se  of  stud}' 
most  of  those  currentless.  non-navigal)le   water-veins, 


200      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

that  seem  to  be  good  only  to  drown  a  cat  in  occasion- 
ally, and  for  a  portion  of  tlie  Congivssional  "  Kiver 
and  Harbor"  appropriation  senii-occasionally?  Wonld 
it  not  be  better  to  substitute  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  regarding  trunk  railroads? 

Life  as  it  is,  not  as  it  was  one  hundred  years  ago, 
requires  not  near  as  many  topographical  minutiae  as 
text-book  authors  would  have  us  believe.  It  seems 
to  me  of  vast  importance,  tliat  our  pupils  learn  more 
mercantile  geograplvi.  I  offer  this  suggestion  for 
what  it  is  worth.     Make  the  best  of  it. 

ONE    WAY  OF  GETTING  AT  THE   IDEA. 

It  is  well  known  by  observant  teachers,  that  children 
are  easily  confused  by  the  great  multiplicity  of  detail 
on  wall-maps.  Especially  the  elevations  trouble  them. 
The  usual  manner  in  which  they  are  drawn  is  not  the 
most  commendable.  The  map-makers  of  Europe  and 
America  do  not  agree  on  a  uniform  treatment  of  this 
subject.  Tins  can  be  seen  from  the  specimen  pages 
of  topographical  maps  laid  before  the  public  by  Capt. 
Wheeler,  the  American  representative  at  the  late 
geographical  congress  at  Venice.  Among  these  maps, 
the  manners  used  by  the  topographical  engineers  in 
France  and  Switzerland  are  by  far  the  best ;  and  I 
must  sa}',  if  I  had  to  choose  between  these  two,  I  should 
consider  the  French  mode  preferable,  because  it  can 
be  imitated  in  school  without  difliculty,  while  the  Swiss 
manner  of  representing  elevations  necessitates  skill  in 
drawing  and  shading.     In  saying  this  I  am,  perhaps, 


GEnaUAPUY. 


201 


prejudiced,  having  used  the  French  manner  of  repre- 
senting elevations  for  many  years.  I  may  be  further 
prejudiced  in  my  choice  by  the  fact  that  the  United- 
States  Topograpiiical  Engineering  Corps  has  adopted 
the  French  mode,  and  as  far  bade  as  18(;i  (during  tlie 
civil  war)  has  represented  tlat-surfaced  maps  in  the 
same  way. 

This  French  method  consists  in  curves  representing 
different  altitudes,  as  is  siiown  in  the  cut  below.     This 


cut  can  easil}'  be  copied  by  the  teacher  on  the  board, 
and  very  little  explanation  is  needed  to  make  it  under- 
stood. The  upper  half  is  a  longitudinal  cross-section 
of  some  mountains  ;  the  lower  half  represents  the  same 
mountains  in  a  flat-surface  map,  and  the  vertical  liiu's 
connecting  the  two  parts  of  the  cut  indicate  different 
altitudes. 

I  believe  that  if  the  elevations  on  our  school-maps 
were  treated  likewise,  —  that  is,  with  curves,  and  per- 
hai)s  a  trifle  of  shading,  indicating  ver}'  steep  eh^va- 
tions,  —  the  ma[)s   would    be    uutler.-itood    much    more 


292      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICS    OF   Til!':   DAY. 

n'adil}'.  As  tlicy  arc  now,  they  represent  mountain 
nuiiics  by  scrawling  liginvs  tliat  look  lii<c  caterpillars. 
In  the  above  cut  the  different  curvatures  represent 
water-lines,  separated  each  by  a  thousand  feet. 

ODD   QUESTIONS   ODDLY  ANSWERED. 

As  an  instructor  in  a  Southern  State  teachers' 
institute,  I  advised  my  hearers  to  submit  some  such 
questions  in  the  study  of  geography  as  are  here 
appended..  Only  geographical  answers  should  be 
admitted.  I  was  greatly  pleased,  when  next  day, 
one  of  my  pupils  handed  me  the  answers  as  they  are 
found  below  in  rhyme.  The  author  of  the  questions,  I 
am  sorry  to  say,  is  unknown  to  the  writer. 

QUESTIONS. 

ONLY   GEOGnAPIIICAL   ANSWERS   TO   BE   GIVEN. 

What  has  a  mouth,  but  cannot  bite  ? 
What  lias  an  arm,  but  cannot  write  ? 
What  has  a  foot,  but  cannot  walk  ? 
What  has  a  head,  hut  cannot  talk  ? 
What  has  a  bank  with  no  money  in  ? 
What  has  a  top,  but  cannot  spin  ? 
What  has  a  neck,  but  has  no  head  ? 
Vfhat  nevei  sleeps,  but  has  a  bed  ? 
What  hook  will  never  catch  a  fish  ? 
What  has  a  basin,  but  not  a  dish  '? 
Where  are  the  locks,  keys  never  turn  ? 
Where  are  the  capes  that  are  not  worn  ? 
What  has  a  branch,  but  has  no  leaves  '? 
What  has  no  locks,  but  has  some  keys  ? 
What  always  falls,  but  gets  no  scratches? 


GEOGRAPHY.  293 

AVIiat  is  tlip  ball  that  no  one  catches  ? 
What  is  quite  long,  but  is  not  tall  ? 
V/hat  has  a  base,  but  plays  no  ball  ? 
What  are  the  poles  nobody  climbs  ? 
Where  are  the  boys  to  answer  these  rhymes  ? 

ANSWERS. 

FUUNISHEO    UY    MKS.    B.    W.    IIAKD,    (ilt.VMTKVILLE,    S.C. 

A  river  has  a  moiitfi,  does  it  follow  tliat  it  biles? 

The  salt  sea  has  an  arm,  but  never,  never  writes. 

A  hill  has  but  a  single /oo^  and  therefore  cannot  walk. 

A  river  has  a  head,  but  it  takes  brains  to  talk. 

The  river's  hank  is  broken,  for  it  has  no  utoney  in  it. 

The  lofty  tuountain  has  a  toii,  but  who  has  strength  to  spin  it  ? 

The  /ajiti  on  which  we  live  has  necks,  but  has  no  heads. 

The  rivers  never  sleep,  but  are  restless  in  their  beds. 

Old  Sandy  Hook,  pn  Jersey  shore,  will  never  catch  a  fish. 

Lake  Eric  holds  its  water  in  a  basin,  not  a  dish. 

In  Scotia's  rugged  land  are  lovely  lakes  or  lacks,  sunlit  '• 

Along  the  coast  of  every  land  are  capes  that  do  not  Jit. 

A  river  has  its  branches,  but  is  not  adorned  with  leaves. 

And  Florida,  our  flowery  land,  has  quite  a  bunch  of  keys. 

No  scratch,  no  wound,  Niagara  gets  in  all  iLs  mighty /c//Z. 

No  base-ball  club  will  take  our  Earth  from  Atlas  grim  and  tall. 

A  railroad  may  have  any  Icmjlh,  but  has  no  hei'jht  at  all. 

A  mountain  is  too  dignified  to  i}lay  a  game  of  ball. 

At  North  and  South  avc  poles  of  ice,  wljieh  no  one  tries  to  climb. 

I  trust  Professor  K will  not  criticise  my  rhyme. 

ELEMENTARY    WORK.— THE   ZOXES. 

A  TKACiiKii  of  till'  fourth  [iriuiMiy  <j;r:uk'  :iskod  me 
once  how  she  c<JiiUl  tippeul  t<j  the  senses  when  she 
taught    tlie    sui)ject    of    zones.      Slic    IkkI    racketl    Irt 

'  Canal  loi^kM  iiifil  rm  ki'jK. 


294      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

liiiiiii  to  find  n.  suitable  appellation  to  the  children's 
experience  and  circle  of  thought.  I  called  her  atten- 
tion to  the  stove;  saying  that  the  room  had  a  torrid, 
temperate,  and  frigid  zone,  and  that  it  should  not  be 
difficult  to  make  the  children  see  that  some  of  thera 
were  sitting  in  the  torrid,  others  in  the  temperate,  and 
again  others  in  the  frigid  zone  of  the  room.  She 
might  show  it  by  means  of  the  thermometer.  While 
some  were  sitting  in  a  temperature  of  80°,  the  greater 
part  of  the  pupils  had  the  advantage  of  enjoying  a 
medium  temperature  of  Go°,  while  some  poor  mortals 
sitting  near  the  windows  were  obliged  to  suffer  in  a 
temperature  of  50°.  Then  I  called  her  attention  to 
the  easy  wa}-  in  which  the  idea  belt,  relating  to  zones, 
might  be  illustrated  by  a  chalk-mark  on  the  floor  all 
around  the  stove.  P'rom  there  to  the  next  step 
would  be  easy.  I  suggested  to  her  to  make  a  very 
large  circle  on  the  board,  which  was  to  represent  the 
earth,  and  in  the  right-hand  ui)[jer  corner  a  small 
circle  which  was  to  represent  the  sun  ;  then,  to  con- 
nect the  circumference  of  the  two  circles  by  straight 
lines,  not  parallel,  l)ut  diverging,  to  represent  i)eams 
of  liglit  and  heat.  She  could  show,  that  some  of  the 
rays  were  short,  others  long,  and  thereby  again 
establish  the  fact  that  the  difference  in  distance,  and 
the  slant  of  the  rays,  caused  the  difference  in  tempera- 
ture ;  in  other  words,  the  zones.  I  offer  this  sugges- 
tion tp  others.  It  is  a  simple,  homelj*  illustration,  but 
it  goes  straight  to  the  point. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

HISTOKY   OF   EDUCATION. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION. 

EDUCATIOX  IN  ROME. 

(after  dittes'  history  of  education.) 

TiiK  eluiracteiistic  feature  of  tlie  Romans  was  prac- 
tical cohiiiwn-seiise.  They  did  not,  like  the  Athenians 
and  other  Greeks,  philosophize  much.  In  all  questions 
and  relations  of  life,  they  searched  for  the  i)ractical 
side.  They  considered  things  very  much  in  the  same 
way  in  which  the  pi'overbial  American  looks  at  them. 
A  few  exami)les  may  illustrate  this. 

The  <>:lorious  i)hil(jso[)hic  truisms  upon  which  the 
grand  structure  of  our  government  is  built,  towering 
up  into  lofty  heights,  a  landmark  for  all  naticjns  on 
the  face  of  the  earth,  —  these  principles  were  not 
originated  among  the  founders  of  the  Union.  They 
are  found  in  the  examples  of  ancient  and  mediieval 
history,  in  the  works  of  English,  Dutch,  German,  and 
French  philosophers  of  several  centuries  ago.  Nor 
did  the  founders  of  the  Union  pi-cteud  to  have  discov- 
ered any  thing  new  ;  but  their  conunon-st-nse  ap|tlied 
oM  tiutli  and  old  i-xpnicucc,  tested  thrui.  and  t"ouud 
many    of     tiieni    of     use.      With    admirable    tael    they 


208      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

strove  for  the  leiilizatioii  of  the  {ittaiiiiihle  ;  and,  with 
wise  discretion,  tiiey  eliminated  all  that  was  not  actu- 
ally useful  or  applicable  under  existing  circumstances. 
So  long  as  the  accumulated  political  wisdom  of  the 
Old  World  was  confined  within  sheei)skiu  and  library 
walls,  it  was  scarcely  worth  the  paper  upon  which  it 
was  printed.  Here,  upon  the  virgin  soil  of  a  new 
continent,  the  creative  sjjirit  of  the  people,  prompted 
by  instinctive  (or  shall  I  say  eminently  wise?)  eclec- 
ticism, realized  them. 

The  telegraph  and  the  telephone,  as  has  been  proven, 
were  discovered  in  Europe  ;  but  the  inventors,  though 
highly  gratified  at  having  solved  important  problems, 
did  not  for  years  utilize  their  inventions.  It  was  left 
to  American  inventive  genius,  coupled  with  admirable 
skill  of  a[)plication,  to  turn  these,  and,  in  fact,  many 
other  inventions,  to  account. 

Or,  to  come  nearer  the  question  under  discussion, 
see  what  the  American  practical  teacher  makes  of  the 
profound  systems  and  philosophic  maxims  of  Comenius, 
Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  Diesterweg.  Of  all  the  edu- 
cational advice  offered  by  these  immortal  teachers, 
American  eclecticism  accepts  just  enough  to  flavor 
American  education,  as  the  cook  squeezes  a  lemon  to 
give  flavor  to  a  dish.  I  do  not  find  fault  with  this, 
not  at  all.  To  comprehend  a  thing,  means  to  pardon 
it ;  that  is  to  say,  means  to  see  the  causes  of  it.^ 

1  A  writer,  in  a  recent  number  of  the  North-American  Review,  says, 
"We  are  far  more  Romuti  than  English.  Indeed,  the  most  extraordinary 
feature  of  the  American  is  his  iui-Engli6buesB.     The  chief   experiences  of 


inSTOJlV  OF  EDUCATIOX.  299 

This,  then,  is  what  is  meant  when  I  say  the  differ- 
ence between  Greeks  and  Romans  was,  that  the  latter 
were  practical.  They  were  a  matter-of-fact  people ; 
wliile  the  Greeks  were,  to  a  great  extent,  philosophic 
dreamers.  Of  the  ciiltnie  of  every  nation  whom  the 
Romans  conquered,  they  accepted  only  those  features 
which  seemed  to  them  useful.  They  made  use  of  the 
fruits  of  education  and  civilization  of  the  Greeks,  for 
the}'  felt  that  Greek  culture  was  vastly  better  tlian 
theirs :  they  felt  the  intellectual  superiority  of  their 
victims.  However,  they  adopted  only  so  much  of  it  as 
seemed  to  them  compatible  with  their  life  and  national 
institutions. 

The  same  eclecticism  that  had  played  a  great  part 
through  all  the  centuries  of  Roman  history,  up  to  the 
time  when  the  Romans  came  into  close  contact  with 
the  Greeks,  —  this  same  eclecticism  is  plainly  visible 
in  their  educational  system.  That  which,  with  the 
Greeks,  was  end  and  aim,  namely,  the  representation 

the  Roman  people  were  what  ours  have  been,  —  war,  trade,  and  xiidden 
expansion  into  national  greatness,  an  expansion  so  rapid  and  immense  a«  to 
overshadow  and  mar  the  serenity  and  order  of  social  life.  Material  pros- 
perity  and  political  administration  were  the  leading  pursuits.  Rome  and 
America  have  loved  luxury  and  pomp.  Kach  civilization  might  he  called  a 
political  success;  both  must  he  judged  social  failures.  Rome  loved  the  big. 
It  seemed  in  harmony  with  the  prodigious  growth  of  Roman  populations 
and  the  gigantic  8i)rcad  of  the  imperial  system.  Size,  brute  mass,  the  big 
figures  of  the  census,  are  our  pride.  Like  the  Romans,  we  adore  quantity. 
American  civilization  and  taste,  American  life  and  |>roblems,  are  singularly 
Roman.  Discussions  in  Roman  liistory  as  to  the  ratios  of  the  precious 
metals  .  .  .  sound  tiresome  like  the  struggle  .  .  .  hero  and  to-day.  Mono|>. 
oly  and  administrative  reform  brought  about  party  changes  then,  as  ibey 
do  now." 


300      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

of  the  beautiful  aud  the  good  in  art,  was  with  the 
Romans  a  mere  means  for  civil  and  political  piu-poses. 
Tiuis,  for  instance,  rhetoric.  In  Greece  it  was  a  great 
accomplishment  to  be  a  fine  orator,  not  primarily  for 
grand  political  ends.  The  Greeks  studied  orator}- 
for  its  own  sake ;  the  Romans,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  great  political  conquests. 

Other  arts  —  music,  for  instance  —  were  considered 
professional  occupations  among  the  Greeks  :  with  the 
Romans,  they  were  accomplishments  acquired  for  the 
purpose  of  filling  leisure  hours. 

In  one  thing  the  Romans  never  learned  from  others. 
In  law  they  may  be  said  to  have  been  geniuses.  The 
wonderful  Roman  law  has  found  its  way  into  the  codes 
of  all  civilized  nations,  and  has  maintained  its  foot- 
hold as  securely  as  Greek  forms  have  in  art,  which  are 
to  this  day  considered  the  ideals  of  artistic  beauty. 
There  was  uotliing  borrowed  in  Roman  law  :  it  was 
indigenous  to  the  soil.  The  ambition  for  conquest 
made  the  Romans  warriors,  and  the  desire  to  govern 
the  nations  round  about  the  then  known  world  made 
them  see  to  it  that  laws  were  made  which  would  organ- 
ically combine  the  different  and  heterogeneous  nations 
into  one  great  empire. 

The  two  great  ideas  around  which  centred  all  Roman 
thought  were  liberty  aud  justice.  Four  means  were 
given  to  work  harmoniousl}"  toward  propagating  these 
ideas, — religion,  legislation,  famil}',  and  school. 

The  education  of  children  was  a  matter  of  family 
concern,  and    family  life  was    regarded    very   highly. 


HISTORY   OF   ElUCATIOX.  301 

The  woixmn  was  not,  us  in  Circece,  considered  too  in- 
ferior to  take  into  aeeount.  On  the  contrary,  we  lind 
women  highly  respected.  Tlie  matron,  or  mother  of 
the  family,  was  the  tuling  spirit  at  liome.  Tlie  eliil- 
dren  were  kept  under  her  guidance  till  the}-  were  fifteen 
years  old.  Before  a  child  was  three  days  old,  its  name 
was  entered  upon  the  civil  roll.  Usually,  festivities 
were  connected  with  what  was  known  as  the  ''  purifi- 
cation "  and  naming  of  the  child.  After  seven  months 
another  festival  was  celebrated,  that  of  the  first  tooth  ; 
and  at  the  end  of  two  years,  that  of  weaning.  In  fact, 
the  child  was  considered  a  source  of  great  rejoicing, 
and  a  cause  of  man}-  festivities.  A  mother  who  could 
boast  of  well-mannered  children  had  reason  for  being 
proud.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  refer  to  Cornelia, 
the  mother  of  the  Gracchi :  she  stands  out  in  bold 
relief  in  the  histor}'  of  education. 

In  contemplating  these  laudable  conditions  of  home- 
life,  it  is  well,  though,  to  remember  that  tliey  existed 
only  during  the  better  part  of  Roman  history  ;  namely, 
during  the  beautiful  days  of  the  republic.  Later,  when 
the  iei)iiblic  degenerated  to  an  oligarchy,  and  still 
later,  when  the  capricious  will  of  emperors  became 
law,  family  life  lost  its  sanctity.  Every  new  victory 
over  a  foreign  enemy  gave  fresh  strength  to  the  inner 
enemy.  And  in  the  same  proportion  in  which  Kome's 
outer  glory  increased,  and  the  state  seemed  to  gain 
materially  and  intellectually,  in  tlie  same  proportion 
crumbled  to  pieces  the  ancient  firm  foundations  of  the 
republic,  and  its  simple,  honest  customs.     Never,  iu 


5)02      EDVCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF   THE   DAY. 

all  history,  have  natural  cause  and  effect  found  a  more 
impressive  illustration,  than  in  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  republic. 

Of  all  the  nations  with  whiclu  Rome  came  into  con- 
tact, not  one  has  had  such  a  destructive  influence  upon 
Roman  institutions  as  the  Greek  nation  did.  And 
upon  none  of  them  have  the  Greeks  had  a  greater  in- 
fluence than  upon  Roman  education,  since  the  Romans 
ceded  this  domain  to  the  Greeks  at  once.  Seeing  how 
far  advanced  the  Greeks  were  in  intellectual  training 
and  in  the  arts,  they  thought  that  knowledge  of  the 
Greek  language,  Greek  art,  Greek  customs,  —  in  short, 
Greek  culture,  must  be  taught  by  Greek  teachers.  80 
it  became  apparently  necessary  that  Greek  nurses, 
Greek  tutors,  Greek  professors,  Greek  artists,  Greek 
elocutionists,  be  emplo3'ed ;  and  soon  Greek  vices 
entered  the  homes  of  the  Roman  citizens. 

During  the  time  of  Cincinnatus.  Fabius,  Fabricius, 
Curius,  Julius  Brutus,  Gracchus,  the  home-life  of  the 
Romans  was  simplicity  itself.  Virtue  and  purity  in 
words  and  actions  were  inculcated  in  the;  children. 
The  boy  grew  up  to  be  a  temperate,  gentle-mannered, 
upright  man,  whose  veneration  for  father  and  mother 
was  deep  and  lasting.  The  exam[)le  of  the  parents 
was  looked  upon  as  the  most  influential  medium  of 
education.  Yea,  sometimes  the  father  w^ould  take  his 
son  to  public  banquets,  so  as  to  be  guarded  by  his  pres- 
ence, which  would  prevent  him  from  falling  into  bad 
habit ;  for  it  was  thought  a  criminal  offence  to  commit 
a  wrong  in  demeanor  in  the  presence  of  children. 


nisTonv  OF  editatiox.  803 

On  tlic  olluM"  liaiid.  olicdicnci'  of  cliildrcn  to  their 
elflors,  and  reverence  tW  old  age,  were  expected  and 
cnfoi'ccd.  Traditions  of  the  great  and  noble  deeds 
of  the  forefathers,  of  Sc;evola,  of  Ciirins,  etc.,  wen- 
handed  down  from  race  to  lace.  They  were  sung  to 
the  accompaniment  of  the  flute,  and  the  boys  would 
sit  and  listen  with  bated  breath  to  these  lays  of  heroic 
deeds. 

The  bo}'  was  taught  by  his  father  till  he  was  fifteen 
3'ears  of  age.  The  Greek  custom  of  giving  the  boys 
a  mentor  —  that  is,  a  trusted  slave  as  guide  —  soon 
found  favor  with  the  Romans.  Later,  this  guide, 
called  cnstos,  was  made  the  teacher  of  gyn. nasties  and 
the  elementary  branches.  Duriug  his  boyhood  the 
boy  wore  the  toga  prcetexta  (boy's  garment)  ;  when 
he  became  a  youth  he  was  permitted  to  wear  a  man's 
garment,  the  toga  viriUs.  It  was  the  custom  to  send 
the  youth  out  of  the  house,  and  to  give  him  into  the 
guardianshi|)  of  a  kinsman  who  practised  law.  This 
lawyer  initiated  him  into  the  intricacies  of  Roman 
law.  And  two  years  later,  after  he  had  comi)leled 
his  seventeenth  year,  he  was  permitted  to  enter  the 
army.  As  far  back  as  400  B.C.,  the  Romans  had 
schools  for  those  who  could  not  defray  the  exi)cnscs 
of  private  tutors  ;  but  these  schools  were  private  enter- 
prises, not  connnon  schools.  IMuch  later,  public  schools 
came  into  existence  ;  and  since  they  were  kept  on  the 
highways,  market-places,  and  cross-ioads.  they  weie 
called  schools  in  triciis.  Our  term  "trivial"  is  de- 
rived from  the  word  triviia  (thive  wa\s  —  crossioads). 


804      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'KS   OF   THE   DAY. 

In  nothing  cnn  llio  (liffcrenct'  lictwcon  Koman  and 
Greek  s[)iiit  be  eonipieliended  belter  than  in  tlie  selec- 
tion and  treatment  of  the  dillerent  branches  of  study. 
All  instruction  was  gauged  by  its  utility.  In  the 
humanizing  influence  of  Greek  gymnastics,  the  Romans 
could  not  believe.  They  accepted  and  adopted  only 
so  much  of  it  as  seemed  necessary  to  strengthen  the 
body,  and  make  it  fit  for  military  service.  All  the 
beautiful  exercises  of  the  Greeks  —  wrestling,  throw- 
ing of  discos,  etc. — was  left  to  professional  athletes, 
called  gladiators,  who  were  slaves.  The  IJoman  boys* 
play  even  had  reference  to  practical  utility.  Upon  the 
Mars  Field  niilitaiy  exercises  were  held,  and  the  Tiber 
River  afforded  op[)ortunity  for  exercises  in  swimming. 
JMusical  practice  was  despised  by  the  Romans  ;  dancing 
prohibited,  except  for  slaves  vvho  were  hired  to  make 
music  and  to  dance  for  the  amusement  of  their  masters 
or  the  public. 

Of  the  mathematics,  the  Romans  taught  onl}"  practi- 
cal arithmetic,  and  of  geometry  only  so  much  as  related 
to  mensuration.^  Besides  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, Roman  history  and  mythology  were  taught. 
But,  singular  as  it  may  seem,  the  Greek  language  and 
rhetoric  were  considered  the  most  necessary  branches 
of  study.  From  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Greece, 
Grecian  philosophers  and  professors  migrated  to 
Italy,  and  opened  schools  there  for  the  purpose  of 
interpreting  tlieir  classic  writers.      Later,  grammatical 

1  Knrojie.in  teachers  accuse  us  American  teachers  of  giving  too  niiich 
attention  to  dollars  and  ceiitf-  problems  iu  arithmetic. 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION.  305 

inslniction  became  a  conditio  sine  qua  nun  of  Roman 
educatiou. 

Tlius  we  sec,  that,  though  the  Romans  had  con- 
quered the  Greeks  politically,  the  latter  conquered  the 
Romans  intellectually. 

Since  thei'e  wore  actually  only  two  honorable  profes- 
sions among  the  Romans,  —  namely,  tliose  of  warriors 
and  statesmen,  —  it  is  easil}-  seen  that  all  their  educa- 
tional efforts  were  directed  toward  perfection  in  these 
two  [)rofessions.  All  the  many  thousands  of  other 
occupations  and  pursuits  were  left  to  slaves,  to  the 
Greeks,  and  other  foreigners  ;  in  fact,  to  any  one  who 
had  a  mind  to  work.  Even  the  physicians  were 
Greeks. 

The  most  powerful  and  influential  school  of  the 
high-born,  or  wealtliy  Roman,  was  life  itself.  His 
knowledge  of  law  and  politics  ho  gained  very  much  in 
the  same  way  in  which  American  lawj'ers  and  i)oliti- 
cians  gain  their  knowledge.  (Who  does  not  recognize 
the  same  thing  in  our  modern  woi-ship  of  the  self-made 
man?)  It  was  customar}'  with  the  young  Roman  to 
attend  court  on  the  Forum,  and  thus  to  study  law  in 
the  most  practical  way  possible.  In  case  he  desired 
to  become  a  mililnry  leader,  he  attaclied  himself  to  a 
commander  in  the  field  ;  and  since  the  Romans  were 
always  at  war  with  somebody,  opi)ortunites  for  a  bril- 
liant military  career  were  seldom  wanting.  Not  that 
the  Roman  youth  received  much  systeniMlic  niililary 
training.  No  :  what  he  loarne<l,  he  leanunl  by  keeping 
his   eyes  open,   and   by  dire  experience.     Just  so  tlie 


306      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC'S   OF  THE    DAY. 

statesman  learned  his  profession  ;  namely,  in  tlie  com- 
pany of  some  renowned  lawyer,  with  whom  he  visited 
the  pnblic  assemblies  and  court-sessions.  Circumspec- 
tion, sharp  penetration,  ready  wit,  and  sound  judgment 
are  all  qualities  which  no  book-wisdom  will  develop. 

It  is  evident  that  Roman  and  Greek  education, 
though  repulsing  each  other  in  some  ways,  completed 
eacli  other  in  others.  For  pure  humanity,  the  ideal 
of  the  Greek  and  the  practical  proficiency  of  the 
Roman  are  but  the  two  sides  of  one  and  the  same 
educational  purpose,  namely,  harmonious  development. 
Neither  the  Greek  one-sided  philosophic  education, 
nor  the  Roman  one-sided  practical  training,  could  save 
the  nation  from  the  inevitable  degeneration,  nor  could 
either  one  prolong  its  national  spirit. 

And  soon  came  the  end,  —  the  glory  of  the  empire. 
AVhat  else  was  it  but  the  lustre  of  an  imitation  jewel? 
As  rotten  wood  will  shine  forth  in  phosphorescent  rays, 
so  the  Roman  Empire,  though  brilliant  in  all  outward 
appearances,  was  rotten  to  the  core.  The  excavated 
walls  of  Pompeii  bear  witness  to  such  shameful  atro- 
cities that  they  seem  to  us  incredible.  No  anther  had 
the  courage  to  chronicle  them.  Onh'  the  brushes  and 
colors  of  artists  proved  to  be  vile  enough  for  the  occa- 
sion. How  must  such  examples  of  vice  and  corruption 
have  taken  effect  on  youthful  dispositions  ! 

When,  with  the  downfall  of  the  republic,  public  life 
lost*  its  significance,  education  became  a  mere  outer 
polish.  Practical  utility,  even,  became  impractical. 
The  emperor's  will  became  law,  and  his  favor  made 


JIISTOnV   OF  EDUCATION.  307 

military  loaders ;  ami  even  the  senators  owed  their 
elevation  to  hi  in.  The  forms  of  Koman  education 
remained  tlie  same  ;  but  they  were  without  substance, 
empty  and  hollow.  Words  and  appearances  sufficed, 
when  truth  and  action  were  wanting.  But,  in  order 
to  keep  up  appearances,  many  more  artificial  means 
are  needed.  Education  in  Rome,  during  the  time  of 
the  emi)erors»  resembled  a  woman  who  has  lost  the 
beauty  of  youth,  and  tries  to  deceive  the  world  by 
applying  cosmetics,  and  even  deadly  poison,  to  cover 
up  the  irreparable  loss. 

Education  in  Rome  soon  degenerated  to  teaching 
sophistry,  flattering  speech,  affectation  in  oratoiy, 
threshing  of  empty  grammatical  straw  ;  in  short,  to 
artificiality  in  the  worst  comi)rehension  of  the  term. 
Instruction  was  restricted  to  an  interpretation  of  the 
classics.  The  method  was  mechanical  ;  tiie  discipline 
strict,  harsh,  and  nnfree.  The  golden  era  of  Roman 
history  was  also  the  golden  era  of  Roman  education. 
The  only  portion  of  the  Roman  educational  system 
which  survived  were  the  law-schools.  They  flourished 
even  during  the  darkest  period  of  Roman  history,  — 
a  fact  which  explains  itself. 

rilE   ANCIENT  GERMANS. 

A     CIIAPTKU     I'UOM     TIIE     HISTORY     OF     CIVILIZATION'     AND 
F.DICATION. 

WiiKN  the  Roman  Em[)ir(!  l)eg:in  to  unfold  its  great- 
est glory  in  conquests  and  politics,  at  the  same  time 
exhibiting  the  iiist  signs  of  decay,  we  sec  theCJcrmanic 


308      EDUCATIOXAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

tribes  coming  from  the  East  and  North,  entering  upon 
the  historic  stage.  We  see  them  wrestle  for  several 
centuries  with  the  colossal  empii'c,  which  had  suc- 
ceeded in  subjecting  almost  the  whole  of  the  then 
known  world,  until  at  last  the  Roman  giant  suc- 
cumbed and  fell  into  fragments,  upon  which  German 
tribes  erected  their  thrones. 

The  Germans  changed  the  map  of  Europe  so  com- 
pletely, and  proved  themselves  so  invincible,  so  won- 
derfully powerful,  that  it  is  worth  while  to  inquire 
into  theii  mode  of  living,  or,  better,  into  their  educa- 
tional efforts.  For  we  must  never  leave  the  fact  out 
of  sight,  that  tlie  beneficial  educational  influence  of  a 
people,  upon  its  own  3'ounger  generations,  is  the  main 
source  of  its  national  strength. 

First,  it  may  be  stated  what  the  fundamental  ditfer- 
ences  were,  between  the  ancient  nations,  and  the  Ger- 
manic races  whose  ideas  revolutionized  the  world. 

(o)  The  ancient  Orientals  liad  a  despotic  govern- 
ment, in  which  the  individual  counted  for  nothing. 
Look  at  the  Tower  of  Babel,  at  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt. 
Think  of  the  millions  of  hands  that  were  directed  by 
a  mere  gesture  of  an  all-powerful  despot.  Think  of 
the  mass-murder  of  men  and  children,  and  you  will 
understand  the  saying:  "The  individual  counted  for 
nothing." 

(h)  Then  we  have  the  queer  repulilican  government 
of  tlie  classic  nations,  in  which  the  state  was  towering 
high  above  all  individual  rights.  All  powers  Avere 
derived   from   the    state.       The    Roman    was    not    an 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATIOy.  309 

individual  mo.n  :  he  was  a  citizen  first.  Yes.  Roman 
patriotism  siii)crsoded  tlie  laws  of  liumauity :  the 
citizens  of  Rome  were  Romans  always,  right  or  wrong. 
They  were  Romans  first,  Romans  last.  Romans  forever. 

(c)  Wlien  the  Germanic  tribes  entered  upon  the 
stage  of  history,  they  brought  with  them  the  wonder- 
ful new  idea,  that  a  man  was  a  human  being  first, 
then  a  citizen.  They  asserted  that  the  human  being 
had  individual  riglits  not  depending  upon  the  state. 
The  state,  the}'  claimed,  was,  and  never  could  be  any 
thing  else  than,  a  combination  of  individuals  for  com- 
mon protection  and  welfare.  The  unity  in  the  state 
was  the  individual ;  and,  his  rights  being  inborn,  they 
must  be  recognized  even  in  the  child. 

Never  has  this  idea  had  a  more  illustrious  inter- 
pretation, than  when,  fifteen  hundred  years  afterward, 
Jefferson  framed  it  in  these  words  :  ''We  hold  these 
truths  to  1k'  self-evident :  that  all  men  are  created 
equal :  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  unalienable  rights  ;  that  among  these  are  life, 
liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness  ;  that  to  secure 
these  rights,  governments  arc  institnted  among  men, 
deriving  their  just  powere  from  the  consent  of  the 
governed ;  that  whenever  any  form  of  government 
becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of  the 
people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it.  and  to  institute  a  new 
government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such  piinciiUes, 
and  organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall 
seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness." 

That    declaration  has  a  most   refivsliiug   fra<xiance. 


310      EDUCATIONAL    TOf'ICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

:ui(1  forms  a  mnrkcd  contrast  to  the  musty  ideas  of 
the  ancients.  And  this  idea  of  individual  self-depend- 
ence,  and  independence  from  otiiers,  was  born  into 
the  world  at  a  time  when  the  Germanic  tribes  began 
to  invade  the  Roman  Empire. 

The  declining  nations,  at  the  l)eglnning  of  *onr  era, 
were  in  despair.  Their  political  convictions  became 
confused,  their  religious  foundations  were  violently 
shaken  by  the  all-powerful  new  gospel  of  Christ,  the 
man,  yet  Son  of  God.  What  was  wanting,  and  what 
they  sought,  was  individuality.  The  reader  will  please 
not  shake  his  head  at  this  sentence.  There  is  more  in 
it  than  appears  at  tlie  first  glance. 

The  individuality  is  conscious  of  its  own  needs, 
physically,  menially,  and  moially.  A  being  who  has 
no  individuality,  no  self-dependence,  no  self-reliance, 
no  character,  of  his  own,  but  deiives  his  strength,  his 
value,  his  faith,  his  mode  of  thinking  and  acting,  in 
fact,  his  very  essence,  from  the  state,  from  the  caprice 
of  a  monarch,  from  a  tyrant,  from  an  autocrat, — I 
say,  such  a  person  loses  himself,  his  individuality  ;  his 
very  fountain  of  strength  dries  up. 

A  new  power  had  to  come  at  the  beginning  of  our 
era,  —  a  flood  of  new  humanity  to  sweep  the  cor- 
rupted state  away,  and  create  a  new  consciousness. 
And  it  came.  The  Germanic  tribes  swept  over  the 
ancient  world,  and  brought  with  them  a  new  idea,  — 
the  idea  of  individuality  and  individual  independence. 
As  sequences  of  this  idea  we  find  among  the  Germanic 
tribes,  (1)  respect  for  personality,  (2)   free  acknowl- 


niSTORY  OF  EDUCATION.  311 

edgmeiit  of  the  claims  of  woman,  (.3)  103'alty  to  the 
leader  chosen  by  tln'iuseives,  (4)  loyalt}'  to  friends, 
Of  the  idea  of  fellowsliip.  These  features  should  be 
carefully  noted,  because  from  them  arose  the  feudalism 
of  the  Middle  Ages. 

What  Roman  writers  tell  us  of  the  education  of  the 
Germans  exi)resses  only  the  emancipation  of  individu- 
ality, which,  in  its  immediate  crudeness.  had  no  other 
form  in  which  to  nianifest  itself  than  wars  for  con- 
quest. To  the  Roman  there  was  something  demoniac 
in  the  Germau.  He  was  not  an  obedient  slave  of  a 
leader,  but  a  man  who  stood  for  himself  and  his  kin, 
a  man  who  believeil  himself  the  descendant  of  a  god. 
The  Roman  dimly  iKjrceived  in  him  his  future  master. 
When  the  Romans  were  to  meet  the  Cimbri  and  Teu- 
tons on  the  batlh^-field,  their  commanders  iiad  fust  to 
accustom  them  to  the  terrible  sight  of  tlie  wild,  giant- 
like forms  and  fearless  eyes  of  the  Germans. 

But  again  we  see  the  all-powerful  influence  of  civ- 
ilization and  culture.  The  Goths,  those  wondeiful 
Germans  who  crushed  the  Roman  Empire,  and  con- 
quered Italy,  were  barbarians.  When  the  hosts  of 
Germans  poured  iuto  the  Roman  Km[)ire,  they  con- 
quered it  with  little  trouble,  because  its  iniial)itanls 
were  a  degenerated  race.  And  vet  liow  nuidi  was  to 
lie  learned  from  these  effeminate  |)Cople !  religion, 
philosophy,  literature,  industry,  art,  and,  curious 
enough,  even  warfare,  —  in  shoit,  every  thing. 

And  the  German  hero  sat  down  on  the  school-bench 
of  his  slave,  and  began  to  learn.      Ami  the  slave  made 


812      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS  OF  THE   DAY. 

use  of  tills  opportunity  for  rt-vcngo,  Jind  iiiulicionsly 
lold  liis  conqueror  tliut  his  gods  were  devils,  and  liis 
belovi'd  lioioes  mean  rowdies,  with  which  decent  peo- 
ple could  not  associate ;  for  Hercules  and  Achilles, 
Joshua  and  Gideon,  these  were  the  right  heroes.  And 
if  he  did  not  tell  him  so  to  his  face,  the  simple-minded 
barbarian  felt  something  of  the  kind. 

His  heart  was  true,  his  strength  invincible,  his 
sense  of  justice  uncorrupted,  his  language  a  wonderful 
source  of  everlasting  rejuvenation,  his  whole  being 
as  different  from  the  cowardly  Roman  as  a  demigod 
is  dilTerent  from  a  vile  ci'eature.  Yet  the  refined  cul- 
ture of  the  ancients  triumphed,  and  to-da^'  no  traces 
are  left  of  the  Goths,  neither  in  Italy  nor  in  Spain. 
As  Grecian  culture  triumphed  over  the  Romans,  so 
Roman  intellect  triumphed  over  the  Germans. 

Education  among  the  ancient  Germans  was  in  har- 
mony with  the  character  of  the  people,  and  with  their 
political  and  religious  institutions.  The  Germans 
were  a  people  with  a  deeply  rooted  sense  of  freedom. 
True,  this  sense  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  egotistical. 
There  were  masters  and  servants  ;  but  even  these  serfs 
were  not  without  certain  rights,  which  no  free-born 
man  was  likelj'  to  disregard.  The  free-born  Germans 
had  such  a  strong  feeling  of  independence,  that  all 
their  political  institutions  shaped  themselves  to  give 
expression  to  this  individual  independence.  "  Help 
yourself,"  is  not  an  American  proverb,  but  it  was  a 
proverb  when  Herrmann  slew  the  Roman  legions  in 
the  Teutoburger  Forest  in  the  year  9  after  Christ. 


IIISTOnV  OF  EDUCATION.  313 

Tlio  provorl),  "  Self  is  man,"  l)e('ainc  tlio  ground  law 
of  eonjnumitic'S  and  largci-  political  divisions.  Kvciy 
siniile  man's  indepcndi-nci-  was  religiously  guarded  ; 
no  one  dared  to  interfere  with  liis  private  affairs. 
Every  village,  every  tribe,  every  eombinatioii  of  triljes, 
was  independent  and  self-dependent  in  all  matters 
pertaining  to  its  own  welfare.  But  in  greater  under- 
takings, —  in  war,  for  instance,  —  the  Germans  subor- 
dinated themselves  readily  to  the  leader,  and  with 
faithfulness  they  followed  him  to  victory  or  death. 
This  is  the  cause  that  we  see  an  uniuly  obstinacy  and 
assertion  of  independence  in  ctunmunities,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  fervent  devotion  and  absolute  obedi- 
ence in  following  the  leader  as  often  as  their  sacred 
soil  is  in  danger.  The  Romans  had  conquered  all 
the  then  known  nations,  but  they  never  conquered  the 
Germans. 

Among  the  chief  virtues  of  the  Germans  were  hospi- 
talit}',  and  magnani'nity  toward  fiiend  and  foe.  The 
Germans  fought  their  battles  themselves  ;  they  never 
liired  mercenaries.  Cowardliness  was  unknown  among 
them.  The  person  of  the  free-born  was  sacred  before 
the  law  ;  he  could  neither  be  corporally  punished,  nor 
sentenced  to  death. 

Every  health  was  an  altar.  "  INIy  house  is  my 
castle,"  said  the  Anglo-Saxon,  also  a  CJerman.  Fam- 
ily life  was  sacred  ;  and  one  of  the  laws  |)eeuliar  to 
the  Germanic  tribes  was  that  woman  had  the  right 
to  her  own  possessions,  and  to  ixMjueath  tlii'm  at  her 
free  will.     Children  were  a  sou  ice  of  great  pride  and 


314      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

happiness  to  the  parents,  and  the  more  children  there 
were  in  a  family,  the  better;  for  with  the  number  of 
childien  and  relatives  grew  the  intluence  and  strength 
of  the  family. 

Tlie  objects  of  educational  efforts  were  to  rear  a 
race  strong  and  healthy  in  body,  brave  and  skilful  in 
the  use  of  weapons,  mild-terapered,  true-hearted,  open- 
handed,  charitable,  faithful  unto  death,  truth-loving, 
economical,  and  diligent. 

New-born  babes  were  dipped  into  water,  and  hard- 
ened against  the  influence  of  the  weather.  Though 
the  climate  of  Germany  is  much  the  same  as  ours, 
children  were  left  to  i)la3'  out-doors  naked  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  We  can  only  understand  this  if  we 
remember  that  all  of  Germany  was  then  one  great 
forest,  only  broken  by  small  clearings  along  the  water- 
courses. To  th«  woods  we  may  attribute  the  even- 
ness and  mildness  of  the  climate. 

When  the  boys  grew  up  they  went  out  hunting,  or 
followed  their  father  and  relatives  into  war.  Their 
most  cherished  play  was  the  spear  dance,  in  which  the 
girls  partici])ated.  In  fact,  in  all  their  amusements, 
in  all  their  educational  efforts,  both  sexes  participated. 
The  mother  was  greatly  respected,  and  a  child  who 
did  not  obey  her  implicitly  and  cheerfully  was  not 
known.  The  women  vied  with  the  men  in  size, 
strength,  and  skill  in  handling  weapons.  Riding, 
swimming,  dancing,  running,  were  practised  equalh' 
by  both  sexes.  It  was  one  of  the  unwritten  laws, 
that  the  man  desirous  of  marrying  must  seek  a  woman 


UISTOIiY  OF  EDUCATION.  315 

of  equal  age  and  strength.  Of  course  Cupid  not 
uiifiequently  broke  tins  law. 

Thus,  then,  were  the  Germans  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  They  had  no  schools.  Esi)eciall3' 
gifted  persons  sought  instruction  among  the  priests. 
These  hail  very  original  script-forms,  —  the  so-called 
Runen  cut  into  the  bark  of  sticks.  Very  few  could 
read  and  write.  But  there  was  one  thing  in  which  they 
were  masters,  and  in  wliicii  none  of  the  ancients,  not 
even  the  Greeks,  could  compete  with  them  :  I  mean 
music. 

It  may  be  truly  said  that  music  was  introduced  first 
into  Europe  by  the  Germanic  tribes,  when  they  came 
in  great  swarms  from  Central  Asia,  from  which  place 
all  the  nations  of  Europe  came.  The  history  of  Ger- 
man waniors  was  sung  I)y  bards ;  the}-  kept  alive 
the  ancient  traditions,  and  thus  aided  in  educating  the 
young.  Everybody  practised  singing,  yea,  even  their 
dances  were  sung  by  the  surrounding  crowds.  Before 
a  battle  the  Germans  would  sing  in  chorus  to  inspire 
themselves  to  heroic  deeds. 

AN  INTERVIEW  BETWEEN  PESTALOZZI  AND 
DR.    DELL. 

[Translated  from  Peslalozzibtdtter.] 

Perhaps  it  is  not  generally  known  that  the  inventor 
of  monitorial  teaching,  Dr.  Andrew  Bell,'  once  visited 

'  Dr.  Hell,  when  principal  of  a  school  nt  Nfailrao,  Ilindoxtan  (1T9.'>),  be- 
came the  founder  of  what  ix  known  in  the  history  of  educalinn  an  monitorial 
teaching.     lie  \vu»  afterward  with  Joseph   Lancaster,  in   luigland,  iu^  niobl 


3115      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

Pestalozzi's  institution  at  Yvcrdun.  The  biographical 
notes  about  licll,  which  are  found  in  Schniid's  I'cchi- 
gogical  Cyclopiciba,  do  not  mention  liis  journey  on  the 
Continent ;  nor  is  this  journey  mentioned  by  Harael, 
Zseholvke,  and  other  authors  who  have  written  about 
the  Bell-Lancaster  method.  Neither  is  this  meeting 
mentioned  in  any  of  the  numerous  books  on  Pesta- 
lozzi's  life  and  teachings.  Luger  merely  mentions 
Bell  as  one  of  the  visitors  at  Yverdun.  W.  II. 
Ackerraann,  one  of  the  pupils  of  Pestalozzi,  and  sub- 
sequently teacher  in  the  model  school  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  describes  this  visit  of  Piell  vei-y  fully. 
The  date  is  not  accurately  stated,  but  from  the  con- 
cluding passage  of  the  description  it  may  be  inferred 
that  it  was  in  the  year  181G,  —  the  same  j'ear  in 
which  Pater  Girard  introduced  monitorial  instruction 
in  Switzerland.  The  report  of  Ackermann,  which  has 
become  exceedingly  rare,  is  here  reproduced  as  a  con- 
tribution to  the  Pestalozzian  literature.     We  quote  :  — 

"  Soon  Dr.  Bell  followed  us  in  our  journey.  He 
was  desirous  to  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  great 
competitor  of  his  fame  upon  tlie  field  of  education  ; 
and,  practical  as  he  was,  he  thought  he  might  perliaps 
succeed  in  gathering  up  a  few  suggestions  suitable  to 
be  utilized  in  his  own  S3'stem, 

"  Since  he  could  neither  speak  German  nor  French, 
he  asked  me  to  be  his  interpreter  with  Pestalozzi.     I 

enthusiastic  apostle.  He  died  in  1832.  The  method  is  also  liiiown  as  the 
nell-Laiicaster  method.  Its  main  feature  was,  that  the  pupils  of  the  liiirher 
grades  tauuht  those  of  the  lower.  Out  of  this  has  grown  the  present  system 
of  pupil-leachers  in  England. 


niSTOIiV  OF  EDUCATION.  317 

consented  cheerfully,  since  I  hoped  to  find  the  best 
oplxMtuiiity,  i>erha[).s  not  to  convince  him,  l)ut  at  least 
to  furuibh  proof,  of  what  I  told  him  in  England  of 
Pestaiozzi. 

"■  Ciicnmstances  were  favorable.  A  public  examin- 
ation was  beinjir  conducted  in  the  institution  dnringr 
the  time  of  Bell's  presence.  I  did  not  leave  liell's 
side,  but  remained  with  him,  translating,  explaining, 
calling  his  attention  to  every  thing  which  1  thought 
might  be  of  interest  to  him.  However,  nothing 
seemed  to  please  him;  only  when,  at  tlie  close  of 
the  examination,  military  exercises  were  conducted, 
some  expression  of  approval  was  heard  from  his 
lips. 

"•  Since  we  thought  he  might  perhaps  not  iiave  had 
a  proper  oi^portunity  to  fully  comprehend  the  -real 
essence  of  the  methods  of  instruction  in  the  institu- 
tion, because  the  instruction  was  as  much  as  possible 
developing  (heuristic),  we  brought  some  l)oys  to  him, 
and  asked  him  to  examine  them  himself.  He  de- 
manded that  they  should  solve  the  Pythagorean  prob- 
lem. One  of  the  boys  solved  it,  but  Bell  said  his 
solution  was  not  the  right  one ;  they  taught  another 
one  in  the  English  schools.  The  boy  said  he  could 
pi'ove  it  in  another  way  ;  and  the  other  iioys  re|)lied 
that  they,  too,  knew  otlier  solutions.  I  believe  the 
boys  themselves  had  found  more  than  twelve  different 
solutions  of  this  geometrical  problem.  We  imhiced 
the  l)oys  to  furnish  some  of  them,  in  order  to  see 
whetlier  the  English  one  was  among  them.     However, 


318      EDUCATIONAL   TOPICS   OF  TIIK   DAY. 

Bell  continued  to  shake  his  head  :  tlie  one  taught  in 
the  English  schools,  he  said,  was  the  best. 

"Thus  it  seemed  impossible  to  give  to  the  great 
pedagogue,  who  seemed  boxed  up  in  his  own  system, 
as  much  as  an  idea  of  the  truth,  that,  instead  of  giving 
his  pupils  an  immense  number  of  receii)ts,  it  was 
immeasurably  better  to  develop  their  thinking  power 
and  power  of  application,  so  that  in  different  circum- 
stances in  life  they  might  be  enabled  to  help  them- 
selves ;  in  other  words,  to  write  their  own  receipts. 

"For  the  following  day  a  second  meeting  was  ar- 
ranged, in  which  Pestalozzi  and  Bell  were  expected 
to  exchange  their  ideas  of  public  education,  and  in 
which  Bell  desired  to  illustrate  his  system  practically. 
All  the  teachers  present  in  the  castle,  all  the  strangers 
and  notables  in  the  city,  flocked  together  to  hear  this 
noteworthy  discussion,  which,  it  was  hoped,  would  not 
be  without  important  results.  For  there  woukl  stand 
face  to  face  the  two  most  noted  and  dissimilar  school- 
men of  their  time,  —  two  schoolmasters  of  world 
renown,  as  diametrically  opposed  to  each  other  in 
their  principles  as  well  as  in  their  finances.  The 
one  had  become  poor  more  than  once  in  the  attempt 
to  realize  his  ideals  for  the  benefit  of  mankind  :  the 
otlier  had  received  for  similar  labor,  for  the  advance- 
ment of  the  English  Higli  Church,  an  annual  salary  of 
two  thousand  pounds  (other  biographers  say  four 
thousand  pounds). 

'•  l^estalozzi  began  to  unfold  his  principles  with  ail 
the  ingenuity  at  his  disposal,  with  all  the  lucidity  which 


UISTOUY   OF  EDUCATION.  319 

translation  into  a  foreign  language  would  permit,  lint 
this  did  not  have  any  better  result  with  Dr.  Bell  tlian 
the  one  mentioned  before.  Pestivlozzi,  for  instanee, 
spoke  of  exciting  the  activity  of  children,  and  among 
other  things  said  that  he  would  make  very  little,  if  an}-, 
use  of  ambition  as  a  motive  power,  because  that  was 
very  frequently  too  powerful  and  too  easily  over- 
excited, lie  would  use  purer  motives;  as,  for  in- 
stance, love  for  duty,  parents,  teachers,  and,  al)ove  all 
things,  interest  in  the  subject  matter.  This  latter,  he 
suggested,  should  be  gainetl  by  methods  of  teaching 
suitable  to  the  pupil's  individuality.  Pestalozzi  be- 
came quite  eloquent  on  this  sul)jcct.  But  the  old 
answer  came  agtiin  :  all  that  was  very  nice,  but  he.  Bell, 
went  further,  because  this  powerful  lever,  ambition,  or 
'  this  i)Owerful  engine  '  as  he  termed  it,  was  the  very 
foimdation  upon  which  his  system  rested. 

"  This  he  proceeded  to  show  practically.  Pestalozzi 
withdrew  to  his  sofa,  and  the  gentlemen  present  were 
placed  upon  the  three  sides  of  a  square  drawn  with 
chalk  on  the  floor ;  on  the  fourth  side  Bell  stood  him- 
self, with  his  interpreter. 

'•'■  And  now  began  a  most  ridiculous  contention  about 
trifles,  and  about  a  number  of  unessential  things;  as, 
for  instance,  when  SQme  one  stopped  in  reading,  or  did 
not  hold  his  book  straight,  or  let  it  fall,  or  did  not 
stand  straight,  or  in  moving  up  or  down  in  the  line 
walked  in  front  of  instead  of  behind  the  others,  —  then 
the  master  would  show  himself  in  his  glory.  In  a 
similar   manner  arithmetic,   and   even   religion,  —  that 


320      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

is,  the  catechism,  —  were  treated  in  the  dry  est  and 
most  mechanic:\l  manner.  For  instance,  '  (iod  created 
the  world.  Who  created  the  world?  what  did  God 
create?  '  etc.,  ad  nauseam. 

"I  turned  around  to  Pestalozzi,  curious  to  see  how 
he  was  impressed  with  this  kind  of  teaching.  He  lay 
on  the  sofa,  and  chewed  the  Qud  of  his  necktie,  as  he 
was  wont  to  do  when  he  had  one  on,  which  was  only 
on  festive  occasions.  Whether  he  did  it  now  from 
pleasure  or  disgust  with  what  he  saw  and  heard,  I  am 
unable  to  say  ;  for  he  remained  ominously  silent. 

"  Next  day  Bell  departed  for  Freiburg,  in  order  to 
visit  the  flourishing  educational  institutions  founded  by 
Pater  Girard,  who  was  afterwards  removed  b\-  the 
Jesuits.  I  accompanied  him.  Before  Bell  left  Frei- 
bui'g,  he  took  me  aside,  saying,  '  Well,  now  I  have 
seen  the  method  of  3'our  Pestalozzi.  Believe  me,  in 
twelve  years  from  now  nobody  will  speak  of  it ;  but 
mine  will  have  spread  all  over  the  globe.  Come  back 
with  me  to  England.  You  will  make  your  fortune. 
With  Pestalozzi's  maxims  and  mode  of  teaching  you 
will  never  succeed.'  " 

It  is  now  seventy  years  since  Bell  predicted  this ; 
and  who  knows  any  thing  of  Bell  now?  and  who  be- 
lieves in  the  efficacy  of  his  method? 

PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS  SEVENTY  YEARS  AGO. 

W^HEN  Gust.  Fr.  Dinter  became  superintendent  of 
the  schools  of  Eastern  Prussia  (his  office  was  at 
Konigsberg  on  the  Baltic),  he  found  the  schools  in  a 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATIOy.  ?>2l 

deplorable  condition  ;  and  witli  line  insight  into  what 
is  needed  most  in  effecting  an  inii)roveinent  of  the 
schools,  namely  better  teachers,  he  set  out  to  work 
tl\at  memorable  cure  which  has  l)ecome  a  matter  of 
history,  and  the  effects  of  which  are  noticeal)le  even 
to  this  day.  He  tells  almost  incredible  things  to  illns- 
tiate  the  low  standard  of  the  teachers  of  his  province. 

One  of  tliese  teachers  believed  that  tlie  Daughter  of 
Zion  had  been  a  young  woman  of  ratiier  questionable 
repute,  living  somewhere  about  tlie  palace  of  Solomon. 
Another,  who  had  to  teach  ''  religion  "  (as  (Jerman 
teachers  in  public  schools  do  even  now),  told  his 
pupils  that  the  Kapernaum  River  emptied  into  Lake 
Genezareth.  A  tliird  claimed  that  there  were  wild 
sheep  in  the  woods  of  Prussia,  commonly  called  deer. 
A  fourtli  cared  naught  for  the  contradiction  of  his 
advanced  pupils  when  he  claimed  it  possible  to 
slaughter  seven  and  one-half  sheei),  or  drive  that 
many  to  pasture.  A  fifth  made  sixteen  mistakes  in 
spelling  in  four  lines.  A  sixth,  a  discharged  speci- 
men, complained  in  a  petition  to  the  king  that  the 
township  Wandlaken  had  defrauded  him  of  200,570 
dollars.  Dinter  was  commissioned  to  iuvi'stigate  the 
case.  First  lu;  thought  the  man  crazy;  but  he  soon 
discovered  that  the  man  liad  just  cause  for  eoniplniiit, 
that  lie.  however,  really  only  claiiiieil  27.')  dollars  due 
him.      The  man  wrote  200  and  .'»  and  70  thus  :  200. .")7(). 

Ill  ]\I<'mrl.  Dinter  iiispccle*!  a  school  one  day.  ami 
found  tlial  the  pupils  were  remarkably  swift  in  solving 
problems  in   mental  arithmetic  ;  indeed,  so  rapidly  did 


322      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  TflE    DAY. 

one  answer  follow  the  other,  that  his  suspicion  was 
aroused.  He  ste[)po<l  nearer  the  platform,  and  notieed 
that  a  boy  raised  iiis  hand  before  a  question  was  given 
out.  Dinter  asked,  '•'•  Why  do  you  raise  your  hand 
before  you  know  the  question?" — "Oh,  1  know 
what's  coming,"  said  the  boy  innocently.  "  I  am 
glad  to  make  your  acquaintance,"  said  Dinter,  turning 
to  the  teacher.  "There  is  evidently  method  in  this 
madness."  In  a  large  class  of  girls  Dinter  found  not 
a  single  pupil  who  felt  it  imjjossible  to  draw  a  four- 
cornered  circle.  In  another  a  pu[)il  gave  it  as  his 
opinion  that  Jesus'  chief  occupation  had  been  to 
conduct  other  people's  lawsuits. 

One  day  he  spent  some  time  in  a  school  where  he 
observed  a  wholesale  slaughter  of  innocent  minds  by 
mechanical  drill  and  dead  routine.  Yet,  despite  the 
stultifying  procedure,  he  found  a  few  bright  pupils 
who  seemed  to  make  progress,  not  because  the}'  were 
thus  taught,  but  despite  it.  "When  the  teacher  accom- 
panied Dinter  to  the  gate,  the  latter  turned  and  said 
he  had  made  a  delightful  discovery  in  his  school.  Of 
course  the  teacher  expected  to  hear  a  compliment, 
and  said  smiling,  "May  I  ask  what  it  is?"  Diuter's 
answer  was,  "  I  have  observed  that  human  reason  has 
a  remarkably  tough  life  :  3'ou  do  all  in  your  power  to 
knock  common-sense  on  the  head  with  a  club,  but  it 
seems  to  live  on  in  spite  of  that." 

One  day  Dinter  took  dinner  at  a  hotel-table,  and 
was  much  annoyed  by  an  aristocratic  land-owner  wlio 
seemed    beut   upon   forcing    his    narrovv    views   upon 


HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION.  323 

modest  ]Mr.  Dinter.  Said  he,  "  Mr.  Inspector,  you 
are  acting  contrary  to  God's  intentions,  and  the  welfare 
of  the  country,  by  trying  to  elevate  the  common  people 
to  a  higher  level  of  existence.  God,  Nature,  and  the 
Government  have  destined  tlu-m  to  [xTfoiin  purely 
mechanical  drudgery.  If  you  teach  tliem  to  think, 
you  revolutionize  tlie  vvoi'ld,  and  sin  against  tlie  dictates 
of  common  piudence  as  well  as  divine  law."  Dinter 
did  not  feel  like  philosophizing  with  this  narrow  mind 
while  he  carved  his  steak,  and  therefore  only  said, 
"  We  will  discuss  that  afterward.  Let  us  talk  aliout 
stock-raising.  You  have  only  recently  bought  that 
extensive  farm,  but  you  seem  to  have  learned  a  good 
deal  of  live  stock  already." — "How  do  you  know 
that?"  asked  the  farmer.  "  Why,"  said  Dinter  with 
a  cunning  smile,  "you  seem  to  know  already,  that, 
to  make  a  bull  a  good  beast  of  draught,  he  must  be 
castrated."     Tableau. 

REFORMERS  AND  PROMOTERS  OF  EDUCATION 
DURING    THE   CHRISTIAN  ERA. 

42-100  A.D.  —  M.  Fdbius  Quintilianus  of  Spain  ;  in 
Rome  from  09  A.D.  Lawyer,  educator  of  emperors 
and  princes  ;  public  teacher  of  oratory.  AVas  the  first 
teacher  who  received  a  salary  from  the  State.  II is 
twelve  ])Ooks  upon  rhetoric  contain  nunnrous  wise 
sayings  with  reference  to  the  education  of  the  young. 

330-378. — BasiUas  the  Great,  1)isliop  of  Ca^sarea 
in  Cappadocia,  Asia  Minor.  Made  cdueationnl  practice 
a  duty  of  monks. 


324      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'ICS    OF  THE   DAY. 

About  470.  —  Marci(i7ius  Felix  Capelld  in  Africa, 
author  of  "  Satyricou,"  which  rcniaincd  a  text-book 
of  tlie  sevou  arts  for  more  than  one  hunibed  years. 

470-563. — 3Iagnas  AureUns  Cassiodoriis  in  Ra- 
venna, Italy,  chancellor  of  the  Gothic  kingdom  in 
Italy  ;  later,  a  monk.  With  Boetius,  the  founder  of 
the  so-ca-lled  scholastic  method.  His  liook  u[)on  the 
various  branches  of  study  remained  a  text-hook  all 
through  the  Middle  Ages.     Historian  of  the  Goths. 

47.5-524.  —  Buedns  in  Rome,  autlior  of  many  school- 
books,  also  of  "Consolation  of  Philosophy."  A  fine 
psychologist. 

719-799. — Sturm,  in  Bavaria,  a  favorite  of  Bis>hop 
Bonifacius.  Founder  of  the  famous  convent  school 
at  Fulda,  which  conti-ibuted  more  toward  spreading 
Christianity  in  Europe  than  any  other  school. 

735-804. — Alcnin  in  York,  first  rector  of  a  school 
in  England  ;  afterwaid  called  to  the  court  of  Charle- 
magne, where  he  became  rector  of  the  noted  "■  Schola 
Palatina."  Introduced  instruction  in  the  classic  lan- 
guages in  Western  P^urope. 

776-856.  —  Rhahanus  Mtiurns^  rector  at  Fulda,  is 
called  the  first  teacher  of  Germany.  Boys'  school  sep- 
arated from  the  convent.  His  principle,  "  individual 
instruction." 

806-849.  — TF« ?(///•/«/ <S^?-o&o,  abbot  of  the  convent 
at  Reiehenau.  in  Lake  Constance,  Switzerland.  His 
journal,  the  most  important  source  of  infonnatit>n 
regarding  education  of  his  time.  A  famous  teacher 
and  much-quoted  author. 


iiiSTonv  or  KDrcirioy.  325 

810-890.  —  Jol).  Scotxs  EriijeiKi,  rcotor  of  tlie 
above-mentioned  "  Schola  PalatitKi,"  renewed  the  fame 
of  this  sclioo!  under  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald. 

10i»7-ll  11.  — Z/'^/yo  of  St.  Victor,  in  Paris;  author 
of  "  Didascaliinn  "  (text-hook),  used  extensivel}'. 

120(!-12(Jl.  —  Vincent  of  Benncois,  a  French  Domin- 
ican monk.  Author  of  a  famous  book  on  the  cduea- 
tion  of  princes  and  nobles;  also  of  the  ''Mirror,"  a 
philosophical  treatise. 

KJ40-13S4.  —  Gerhard  Groote,  monk  in  Deventer, 
Holland,  made  it  the  duty  of  his  order  to  establish 
schools,  and  take  cai'e  of  the  poor.  Improved  method 
of  teaching  Latin. 

1107-1 4."j8.  — Maphd'HH  Veyias  of  Lodi,  Italy, 
wcjrkcd  in  IJome.  Author  of  six  books  on  the  educa- 
tion of  children,  the  greatest  work  on  education  ever 
written  in  Italy. 

144;}-1  18o.  —  Johaiinea  AijricDln.  {Ilaiisnuuin)  iu 
Holland,  noted  teachir  in  Heidelberg  and  Worms. 
Prepared  many  teachers  of  great  renown. 

14r>7-l."i.j(!.  —  Desidarins  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam, 
lived  iu  Basle,  Swil/erland.  (ireat  intbience  U[)on 
methods  of  education;  published  "Adagio"  and 
'*  C'oUoquia,"  also  "Methods  of  Study,"  all  noted 
educational   wcjrks. 

14.s;}-i:)4r).  —  M<irtin  Luther,  born  at  Eisleben,  Thu- 
ringia  ;  i)rofessor  in  the  Tniversity  of  AVittenborg ; 
reformer  of  the  (huich  ;  founder  of  conunon  sehools 
for  both  sexes;  translator  of  the  Bible  into  New  High 
CJennan  ;   wiote  a  catechism,  a  primer,  and   was  Aery 


J]2G      EDUCATIONAL    TOl'IdH   OF  THE  DAY. 

iiilliicntial  in  awjikcning  a  desire  for  ecUiealiou  amoiij^ 
the  i)('()i)le. 

14<S4-ir)31. —  Ulrich  Ziviiirjli,  one  of  the  reformers 
of  the  C'hureii  ;  fomided  c<Jininoii  schools,  and  wrote 
a  treatise  on  education  of  l)ovs. 

1485-15,3'S. — Johann  Bngenhagoi,  introduced  the 
common  school  in  Northern  Germany- 

1490-1556.  —  Valentin  F riedhmd  Trotzendorf,  rector 
of  the  famous  model  school  at  Goldberg. 

1497-15G0.  —  Philipp  Mdanchthon,  Bretten  in  Ba- 
den, one  of  the  reformers  of  the  Cluirch,  called  "  Pre- 
ceptor GermcDdai ;  "  reviver  of  philology;  author  of 
renowned  text-books. 

1499-1582.  — r/ioma.s  Platter  {WalUs)  in  Switzer- 
land, rector  at  Basle.  Ilis  autobiography  is  the  cliief 
source  of  information  concerning  the  education  of  his 
time. 

1503-1558.  —  .//co/j  Micyllus,  Frankfort-on-the  Main, 
worked  at  Heidelberg ;  noted  i)ui)il  of  INIelanchthon  ; 
laid  stress  upon  understanding  the  classical  writers,  — 
that  is,  the  substance  rather  than  the  language. 

1507-1589. — J()h)i  Sturm.,  reciov  ni  Stras])urg  ;  the 
most  noted  and  indei)endent  practical  educator  of  liis 
time  ;  taught  the  idea  that  the  classical  studies  should 
be  pursued  for  tlic  sake  and  benefit  of  religion,  claim- 
ing that  they  had  value  in  themselves  ;  is  still  quoted 
when  the  formal  aid  of  education  is  defended. 

1515-1572.  —  Petrus  jRaiuus,  France:  reformer  of 
French  schools  ;  insisted  upon  general  culture  in  con- 
tradistinction to  mere  langiuige  instruction. 


nisTonv  OF  education.  327 

1510-1580.  —  Ilicronj/mita  Wolf,  rector  at  Aug.shur<r. 
Principle  :  "  School  has  accomplished  all  it  can  do,  if  it 
succeeds  in  teaching  its  i)U|)il.s  to  edncate  tiieniselves." 

1533-15D2.  —  Michel  (I  e  M'luLdifjnp,  French  author; 
of  great  influence  in  giving  education  better  aims : 
(I)  body  and  soul  to  be  harmoniously  devcloi)ed  ;  (2)  in 
mental  discii)line,  practice  should  be  more  prominent 
than  memory  work. 

1571-1  G."35. —  Wolfg'ing  Ralich{ius),  born  in  Koe- 
then,  Thnringia,  Germany.  Called  the  founder  of 
"the  new  method;  "  not  mechanical  drill,  but  devel- 
opment and  practice  of  the  thinking  faculty.  Friend 
of  IJaco  de  Verulam,  whose  revolutionary  ideas  he  em- 
bodied in  a  memorial  addressed  to  all  the  princes  of 
German}'.  Introduced  instruction  in  German  into  the 
higiier  schools  of  (Jermauy  siile  by  side  with  Latin. 
The  first  who  emphatically  claimed  teaching  to  be  an 
art. 

I58(3-1G54. — Joli.  Videvfin  Andrae.  Reformer  of 
schools  in  Wurtemberg,  Germany.  Claimed  that  the 
mother-tongue  should  predominate  over  Latin,  ami 
that  it  should  be  taught  rationally. 

1592-1<;71.  — Joli.  Amos  ComoiiKS,  born  at  Conniia. 
Moravia.  Bishop  of  the  Church  of  the  Brethren  at 
Lissa,  Poland.  Fatlier  of  modern  educational  science 
based  upon  ps3'chological  principles.  ''  Nifiil  eaf  in 
intellectu  quod  nov  fuerit  in  seuau."  Author  of"  Orbis 
Pictus."  Education  has  the  p»n'|)ose  of  making  tiie 
human  bcijig  happy  by  harmonious  mental  and  moral 
development. 


328      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAV. 

IGOO-inCl).  —  Joh.  Michel  Moscherosch.  Empha- 
sized Christian  home  training. 

1G10-1G61. — Joh.  Balthasar  Schuppius^  Hamburg, 
Germany.     Promoter  of  popular  education. 

lG3r)-1705.  —  Plulipp  Jacob  Spenei\  Germany. 
Keviver  of  trne  Christian  spirit  in  school ;  introduced 
better  methods  for  religious  instruction ;  opposed 
orthodoxy. 

1G51-1715. — FeneJon,  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la 
Mothe.  Archbishop  of  Cambray,  France ;  tutor  of 
Louis  XIV. 's  grandchildren.  Author  of  the  well-known 
juvenile  book,  "  The  Adventures  of  Telemaque." 

1G55-1728.  —  Christopher  Thomas{ias)  at  Halle, 
Germany.  Advocated  the  use  of  the  mother-tongue 
in  instruction  in  science.  Noted  advocate  of  freedom 
of  thought. 

IGGl-lTol.  —  Daniel  Defoe,  England.  Worked  in 
favor  of  rational  education  b}'  writing  the  immortal 
children's  book,  "Robinson  Crusoe"  (1719);  advo- 
cated, also,  religious  liberty. 

16G1-1 741 .  — -  Charles  Rollin.  Distiuguished  French 
educational  author. 

1 6G2-1 742.  —  Richard  Bentley,  England.  Most  dis- 
tinguished promoter  of  modern  science  of  archaeology. 

1663-1727. — Aug.  Herm.  Francke,  Halle,  Ger- 
many. Founder  of  orphan -asylum  and  extensive 
schools  for  the  poor.  One  of  the  most  noted  expo- 
nents of  Christian  charity. 

1669-1740. — Christopher  Semler,  Halle,  Germany. 
Founder  of  the  first  scientific  high  school  (so-called 
Realschule) . 


IIISTOTiV   OF  EDUCATIOX.  329 

IGOS-lTo').  —  Joh.  Jacob  Rnnibarh,  in  Jena  and 
Giessen.     The  first  German  professor  of  pedagogy. 

1707-1781. — Joh.  Aurf.  Ernest i,  in  Leipzig.  One 
of  the  most  noted  and  successful  sclioolniasters  of  his 
time.  "  Humanism  (as  coml)inati<)n  of  ehissical  and 
scientific  studies)  to  be  tlie  foundation  of  liigh-seiiuol 
instruction." 

1712-1778. — Jan  Jacr/xes  Jioussean^  of  Geneva. 
Dei)icted  in  his  "  ftniile  "  (1757)  the  ideal  of  an  edu- 
cation based  upon  pure  reason,  presupposing  impossi- 
ble '•  natural  conditions  "  and  aiming  at  "  naturalism." 
Complete  denial  of  pedagogic  principles  and  traditions 
of  the  past.  Rousseau's  influence  cannot  l)e  traced 
to  have  been  directly  licneficial ;  but  the  thoughts  he 
awakened,  and  the  actions  to  which  he  spin  red  otiiers, 
will  place  him  in  the  foreground  of  the  history  of 
education. 

1713-1797.  —  JoJi.  Fr.  Fhitticli,  in  Wurtemberg, 
Germany.  A  most  original  educator,  of  Christian 
spirit ;  aimed  at  bringing  out  the  individuality  of  the 
child  ;  discipline  the  essence  of  education. 

1723-1790. — Joh.  Bernhard  Basecloio,  Dessau, 
Tiiuringia,  Germany.  Founder  of  the  "  Pliilanlhrop- 
inisni."  His  principle  was,  that  school  must  aim  at  a 
general  human  developmc-nt,  bring  out  what  is  huuian 
in  man.  Chiefiy  acted  from  the  stand[)oint  of  utilita- 
rianism. What  Dr.  Hell  was  in  England,  Basedow 
may  be  said  to  have  been  in  Germany;  to  wit,  a  rep- 
resentative of  educational  charlatanism. 

1724-1788. — Joh.  Iijnnz  von  F'clbi'/fr.,  tlie  founder 
of  Catholic  people's  schools  in  Austria. 


3.30      EBUCATIONAL    TOPTC'S   OF  TIIK    DAY. 

1724-1703.  A.Fr.  Biicsrhinr/,  in  Berlin.  Educa- 
tional author,  and  founder  of  geographical  instruction. 

172")-180r).  Fr.  Gabriel  Re.sewitz,  Germany.  Em- 
phasized the  necessity  of  establishing  special  schools 
for  the  practical  prei)aration  of  tradesmen  and  farmers. 

172G-1804.  Chr.  Felix  Weisse,  Germany.  Noted 
writer  of  juvenile  literature,  such  as  "  The  Children's 
Friend." 

1729-1 790.  Samuel  Heinil'e,  Haml)urg  and  Leipzig, 
Germany.  Inventor  of  a  method  of  teaching  deaf- 
mutes  to  speak. 

1729-1812.  Chrisi.  Gottlieb  Ileyne,  in  Gottingen, 
Germany.  The  greatest  philologist  of  his  time. 
Teacher  of  numerous  noted  schoolmen. 

1734-1805.  Fr.  Eberhard  von  Rochoiu,  Germany. 
Reformer  of  rural  schools. 

1735-1811.  Robert  Raikes,  England.  Founder  of 
schools  for  the  lowest  strata  of  society  ;  particularly 
noted  for  establishing  Sunday  schools. 

1744-1811.  Christ.  Gotthilf  Salzmann,  GermanJ^ 
Founder  of  the  world-renowned  educational  institution 
at  Schnepfenthal,  in  which  the  purified  principles  of 
Rousseau  and  Basedow  were  applied.     Fertile  author. 

1745-1818.  Ernst  Christ.  Tntpp,  Germany.  With 
Salzmann  and  Campe,  chief  advocate  of  purified  phil- 
anthropinism. 

1745-1822.  Valentin  Hany,  France.  Established 
the  first  asylum  and  scliool  for  the  blind  in  Paris, 
1784. 

1746-1818.     Joachim    Heinrich    Campe,    Germany. 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION.  331 

Noted  author  of  juvenile  literature.  "  Robinson 
Crusoe  tiie  Younger." 

174G-1<*^27.  Joh.  Ileinrich  Pestalozzi^  Switzerland. 
Originator  of  modern  pedagogical  art,  especially  in 
regard  to  elementary  instruction.  Prinei[)les  :  instruc- 
tion must  be  based  upon  sense-pereei)tion,  must  pro- 
ceed step  by  step  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
from  the  near  to  the  remote,  etc.  Aim  of  ('(Uication 
should  be  to  develop  pure  humanity  upon  a  Christian 
basis.  A  wonderful  enthusiast  and  idealist,  but  im- 
practical to  a  fault. 

174G-1830.  StepJianie  von  Geulis.,  the  most  distin- 
guished lady  teacher  and  pedagogical  writer  of  her  time 
in  France. 

1753-1832.  Andreio  Bell,  England.  Promoter  of 
jiopular  education.  Inventor  of  monitorial  teaching 
(einploymeut  of  pupil  teachers).  (See  also  Lancas- 
ter.) 

1754-1828.  Avg.  Hcrm.  Niemeyer.,  Halle,  Ger- 
many. Influential  educator  and  pedagogical  writer. 
Principle  :  education  should  be  rational,  and  develop 
what  is  human  in  man. 

1759-1839.  Christ.  Fr.  Gnts-^fllths,  Germany. 
Teacher  at  Schnepfenthal ;  improved  methods  of  teach- 
ing scientific  studies  ;  zealous  promoter  of  gynniastics. 

1700-1831.  Gust.  Fr.  Diutar.  Germany.  Highly 
iuduential  in  improving  normal  training-schools.  Did 
much  to  lift  the  conimon  schools  of  Eastern  Prussia 
when  school  insjiector  at  Konigsberg.  Disciple  of 
Pestalozzi. 


332      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC^i   OF  THE    J)AV. 

17G1-1850.  Ihinrirh  Slcphani,  CJermaii}-.  Re- 
former of  tlie  school  system  of  IJavaria  accoi'ding  to 
I'estalozzian  principles;  re-invented  the  "■  lost  art  "  of 
teaching  to  read  by  sounds  instead  of  by  the  alphabet 
method. 

17G3-1834.  Kmi  David  Ilgen,  Germany.  The 
"prince  among  rectors;"  fertile  writer,  and  great 
authority. 

17GG-1837.  Fr.  H.  Christ.  Schicarz,  Germany. 
Professor  in  Heidelberg  ;  noted  teacher ;  i)roraoter  of 
Pestalozzi's  and  Kant's  ideas ;  author  of  a  nuich- 
quoted  "Manual  for  Education  and  Instiuction." 

17GG-1841.  Joh.  Baptist  Graser,  Germany.  Scliool 
inspector  at  Bayreuth,  Bavaria.  Aim  of  education 
should  not  be  a  development  of  what  is  human  in  man, 
but  of  the  ability  to  fulfil  divine  destiny. 

17G6-1848.  Fr.  Immanuel  Niethavimer,  Germany. 
Chief  school  inspector  at  Munich ;  represented  the  idea 
of  humanism  as  opposed  to  the  idea  of  utility  urged  by 
the  philanthropists. 

17G8-182G.  JoJiann  Falk,  Germany,  Danlzig. 
Founder  of  the  first  German  boys'  reform  school  at 
"Weimar  and  similar  institutions. 

1768-1854.  Christ,  von  Schmid,  German}',  Augs- 
burg. Distinguished  author  of  juvenile  reading 
matter. 

17G9-1831.  James  Hamilton,  England.  Inventor 
and  advocate  of  the  so-called  analytic  method  in  lan- 
guage instruction. 

1770-1840.     Jean  Jacoto^,  France,  Paris.     Inventor 


HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION.  333 

of  a  melliod  known  as  .lacotot's  nifthod.  wliicli  aims 
at  the  greatest  possible  self-activity  on  the  part  of  the 
l)npil,  antl  exercises  the  uuMnoiv  by  enilless  repetition. 
l*rineii)le  :  •' All  is  in  all."  Starting;  with  a  fable,  he 
combined  every  kind  of  instruction  with  language,  and 
thus  concentrated  all  his  efforts  u[)on  a  common  centre. 

1 771-1  <S44.  Phil.  Emanuel  von  Fellenberg,  Switz- 
erland. Founder  of  the  fust  industrial  school.  His 
institution  at  Hofwyl  gained  great  renown. 

1771-1858.  Robert  O/'-^h,  Scotland.  The  socialist. 
Founded,  181C,  at  New  Lanark  in  Scotland,  the  first 
infant  school. 

1773-1838.  Bernhardvon  Denzel^Germnny.  Noted 
for  his  laudable  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  school  systems 
of  Nassau  and  Wiirtemberg. 

1776-1839.  Ilenric  Linrj^  Sweden,  Lund.  Founder 
of  the  so-called  Swedish  system  of  g3'mnastics. 

1770-1811.  Joh.  Fr.  Ilerhart,  German}-.  His 
philosophical  and  psychological  writings  have  exer- 
cised a  great  and  Itenelicial  influence  ui);)n  pedagogy. 
Ai)plied  his  ideas  [jractically  as  i)rinci[)al  of  a  teacher's 
training-school. 

1777-1.S38.  Jos.  Lancaster,  England,  London. 
Founder  of  tlie  so-called  Lancaster  schools,  in  which 
Bell's  suggestion  to  have  the  youugi'r  pu|)ils  taught  by 
older  ones,  was  carrie<l  out.  This  "■  monitorial  teach- 
ing "  is  connuonly  called  lU'U-Laucastcr  mellioil. 

1778-18r)2.  Fr.  Liohriij  Jiihn,  (iermany.  Father 
of  gymnastics  in  (Jermauy. 

1779-18(;8.      Henri/    BruugJuna,    England.       Noted 


334      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   TIIF.    I>A  Y. 

promoter  of  education  among  the  lower  strata  of 
society. 

1780-1852.  Karl  Christ.  Gottl.  Zerrener,  German}-, 
Magdeburg.  Reformer  of  public-school  s^-stem  in 
Prussia,  and  authority  on  methods.  Author  of  "  Book 
of  Methods." 

1782-1852.  Fr.  Wm.  Aug.  Fro^hd,  Germany. 
The  greatest  modern  reformer  of  education.  Noted 
author:  "Education  of  Man,"  "Pedagogy  of  the 
Kindergarten,"  and  other  works.  Best  known  as 
the  founder  of  kindergarten. 

1787-1864.  Wilhelm  H<irnisch,  rector  of  a  teach- 
ers' seminary,  Weissenfels,  Germany.  Noted  author- 
ity on  methods,  aud  author  of  text-books  used  quite 
extensively. 

1 790-1 8GG.  Fr.  Adolf  Diestenoeg,  IMoers  in  Rhen- 
ish Prussia,  later  in  Berlin.  Rector  of  teachers' 
seminary.  Most  decisive  promoter  of  rational  teach- 
ing;  author  of  "Teachers'  Guide,"  which,  repeatedly 
revised,  is  to  this  da}'  the  standard  work  on  practical 
pedagogy  in  Germany.  He  was  in  Germany  what 
Horace  Mann  was  in  America  :  the  sharpest  critic,  the 
most  fertile  author,  and  the  palladine  of  the  profes- 
sion. In  the  press,  on  the  rostrum,  in  Parliament,  he 
always  fought  the  liattle  of  the  teachers  against  con- 
servatism, priestly  arrogance,  and  the  stupidity  of  the 
masses.  If  the  four  greatest  pedagogues  are  to  be 
mentioned,  they  must  be  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  P^roebel, 
and  Diesterweg. 

1791-1864.       Christ.      Gottloh     Scholz,     Germany. 


HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION.  335 

Principal  of  a  iioruuu  school  for  female  teachers  at 
Bieslau. 

17!>j-1842.  Thomas  Arnold.  England.  Rector  at 
Rugby  ;  reformer  of  secondaiy  instruction  ;  one  of  the 
greatest  educators  of  England. 

17'J8-1<SG2.  Joh.  Karl  Christ.  Vogcl,  Germany. 
Distinguished  rector  of  the  ^^  Real-school"  at  Leipzig. 

1798-1854.  Fr.  Eduard  Beneke,  Giivmauy.  Noted 
psychologist  at  Berlin.  Very  influential  by  ai)pl\ing 
psychological  laws  in  instruction. 

1799-18()8.  Johaiiii  Goitl.  Dressier,  Germany. 
Rector  of  a  normal  school  at  Bautzen  ;  veiy  active  in 
spreading  Beneke's  ideas. 

1800-1879.  Ilzinrich  ]r/c7i^?'n,  Germany.  Founder 
of  the  Hiformatory  school  "■' zam  liaaliea  JIciKse"  at 
Hamburg. 

1801-1870.  Th.  I(jn((tins  Scherr,  Swilzciland. 
Distinguished  promoter  of  po[)ular  eilucaliuii  in 
Switzerland. 

1802-18r)8.  ITeinrich  Graefe,  Germany.  Rector 
of  Real-school  at  Bremen.  Emi)hasized  the  training  of 
emotions,  in  contradistinction  to  the  one-sided  intel- 
lectual training. 

1803-1873.  Thomas  Guthrie,  England.  Fonnder 
of  the  so-called  "  Rag-school  "  for  depraved  youth. 

1804-1875.  Karl  Adolf  Schviid,  Germany,  Stutt- 
gart. Editor  of  the  greatest  cycloi)jedia  of  education 
and  instruction,  a  womlcrful  work,  and  llie  Ijcst  source 
of  information  for  the  histor}'  of  education. 

1801-1873.     Aiiyust    Lneben,    Germany.      Pupil    of 


830      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

Harnisch ;  i-eetor  of  normal  school  at  Bremen,  re- 
former of  methods  in  teaching  natural  history  and 
sciences,  author  of  a  numljcr  of  well-reputed  school- 
books,  and  editor  of  an  educational  journal,  "  The 
Practical  Schoohnaster. ' * 

1810-1858.  Kmi  Mager,  Germany.  Promoter  of 
modern  "  Citizen-schools." 

1811-18G7.  Friedrich  Luebker,  Germanj-.  Rector 
in  Schlesvvig.  Author  of  an  excellent  lexicon  of 
classical  antiquity. 

181 G-.  Ferdinand  Schmidt,  German}*,  Author  of 
juvenile  literature. 

181 7-.  Tuisko  Ziller,  Germany.  Univei'sity  of 
Leipzig.  Represented  Herbart's  principles  ;  founded 
a  normal  school  for  universit}'  students,  in  which  he 
applied  Herbart's  system  of  concentric  instruction. 
Same  w'as  done  in  Stoy's  seminary  at  Jena. 

1819-18G4.  Karl  Schmidt,  Germany,  Gotha. 
Author  of  best  history  of  education  ;  advocated  an- 
thropological instruction. 

1829-.  Friedrich  Dittes,  Austria.  Rector  of  nor- 
mal school  at  Vienna.  Best  authority  on  modern 
methods  of  teaching ;  well-reputed  editor  of  educa- 
tional journals ;  and  author  of  "  School  of  Peda- 
gogy," 4  vols. 

The  writer  has  purposely  omitted  all  reference  to 
American  educators,  since  he  considers  himself  incom- 
petent to  make  a  proper  selection  fi-om  the  long  list 
of  distinguished  educators  who  have  so  nobly  worked 


HlSrOIiV   OF  EDUCATION.  337 

to  promote  American  popular  education  to  its  present 
high  standard  of  excellence.  IJut  he  hopes  sincerely 
that  some  welUreputed,  judicious  writer  ma}'  And  it  a 
labor  of  love  to  furnish  the  American  teaching  pro- 
fession with  such  a  list. 


CHAPTER   X. 

HISTORY. 


CHAPTER   X. 

HISTORY. 

WHY,    WHEN,   AND  HOW  TO  TEACH  HISTORY, 
OR,   A    WANT,   AND  HOW   TO   MEET  IT. 

Tt  is  a  trite,  yet  cnniiently  wise,  remaik.  ''  The  boy 
is  the  father  of  the  man."  The  man  is  to  1)e,  cer- 
tainly in  this  conntry,  the  citizen  of  a  Repnblie.  It 
seems,  therefore,  very  desirable  that  the  boy,  and  for 
that  matter  the  girl  also,  should  acquire  something  of 
that  which  is  indispensable  in  the  future  citizen.  The 
citizen  of  a  republic  is  distinguished  from  the  subject 
of  a  monarch  by  a  greater  number  of  rights  ;  but  every 
additional  right  is,  according  to  "the  eternal  (itness 
of  things,"  balanced  by  an  additional  civil  or  moral 
duty.  The  citizen  of  the  Republic  is,  therefore,  under 
greater  obligations  than  the  sul)ject  of  a  monarch. 

I  do  not  care  to  encumber  this  essay  with  an  enu- 
meration of  these  rights  and  duties.  I  will  mention 
only  one,  which,  though  self-evident  as  it  may  be,  is 
not  generally  understood.  Self-government  demands 
greater  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  individual  in  all 
domains  of  human  activity  ;  luit,  above  all.  it  demands 
a  higher  degree  of  intellectual  and  moral  culture,  both 
for  the  enjoyment  of  greater  lights  and  the  fuHilment 
of    higher  duties,   than    is    rcfjuircd    of    |)orsons    in    a 


842      EDUCATIONAL    rOI'ICS    OF   THE   DAY. 

coiintiy  with  liUle  or  no  sclf-govoi'iirn'^nt.  This  rea- 
soning jippcnrs  to  rno  so  evident,  that  I  hesitate  to 
give  it  utteranee. 

Hilt  let  uie  ask.  Is  it  generally  aeknowledgetl  to  l)e 
correct?  Do  educational  olHcials,  leaders  of  educa- 
tional affairs,  act  accordingly?  It  ai)i)ears  not.  With 
much  comi)lacency  and  satisfaction  it  is  said, — and 
not  only  in  Fourth-of-July  orations.  —  *••  Every  citizen 
of  this  glorious  country  is  a  sovereign."  This  savors 
much  of  the  proverbial  "  Ciois  Romnnum  sum,"  and 
will  inevital)ly  lead  to  the  same  result;  that  is,  degen- 
eration of  the  individual  and  state. 

It  is  the  common  belief  in  all  strata  of  society,  that 
the  mere  privilege  of  I)eing  a  citizen  —  the  accident  of 
birth  —  is  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes.  An 
extensive  preparation  does  not  seem  to  be  required 
or  needed.  Indeed,  the  fact  that  a  colored  —  or,  for 
that  matter,  a  pale-faced  —  illiterate  voter,  whose  want 
of  culture  stamps  him  an  "  enc3'elopaHlian  ignora- 
mus," has  greater  rights  and  fewer  duties  than  the 
most  accomplished  and  cultured  lady,  is  evidently-  the 
upshot  of  the  general  belief  referred  to.  We  trust 
too  much  to  the  "■  benign  influence  of  our  free  insti- 
tutions." 

■We  sin  grievously,  when  we  hasten  to  acquaint  our 
children  with  the  rights  of  citizenship,  but  remain 
silent  upon  their  attendant  duties.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  rights  of  an  ignorant,  vicious  person, 
or  of  a  weak,  reed-like  character,  are  rights  no  longer: 
they  are  privileges  (private  rights). 


iiis^Tonv.  343 

But  not  only  in  inlollectiuil  cnlturo  should  tlio  citiz.'n 
of  a  repul)lic  excel.  More  necessary  than  that,  is 
moral  or  ethical  culture.  Nowhere  is  the  noble  virtue 
obedience  a  more  necessary  requisite  of  citizenship 
than  in  a  republic,  where  no  arbitrary  power  enforces 
obedience,  but  where  tiie  law  is  made  and  executed 
l)y  the  people  themselves ;  where  the  government  is 
"of  the  people,  l)y  the  |)eople,  and  for  the  pe(Ji)le." 
Without  strict  obedience  of  its  citizens,  the  repul)lic 
is  a  contradiction  in  itself. 

Obedience  is,  to  a  great  extent,  dependent  upon  tlie 
will-power,  and  that  can  only  be  trained  in  eaily  youth. 
Every  one  who  has  had  experience  in  training  ciiil- 
dren  knows  this  :  but  when  we  come  to  ask.  How  is 
the  will-power  best  to  be  trained?  the  most  contradic- 
tory answers  will  bo  heard.  I  do  not  care  to  stoop  so 
low  as  to  refute  the  rod-argument  or  the  taffy-argu- 
ment. Let  mo  say  at  once,  that  moral  will-power  must 
diirice  its  itonrisliment  from  the  fountain  of  emotion. 

The  moral  will-power  can  be  steeled  in  no  more 
rational  and  no  more  ai)propriate  way,  than  by  means 
of  good  instruction  in  history.  In  history  lie  stored 
up  the  grand  examples  and  experiences  of  the  past. 
Youth  is  willing,  nay,  eager  to  learn  them,  if  they  are 
brought  to  them,  not  as  mould  and  :l^shes.  l)iit  as  living 
creatures  and  lifelike  actions.  And  with  the  aid  of 
history  alone  can  be  i)rovon  the  grand  truth,  that  the 
system  of  the  woilil  is  nt^t  dependent  i\[Hm  mere  sense- 
less play  of  meehanieal  forces,  in  which  accidents  or 
cunning  or  brutal  force  play  the  im[)ortaDt  roles.,  but 


344      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

iH)on  an  immortal  law  of  justice  and  truth  ;  and  that 
he  is  the  mightiest  and  iiapi)iest  who  succeeds  in 
keeping  his  own  life  in  constant  harmony  with  these 
fundamental  laws  of  the  entire  system  of  the  world. 

"Man  meets,  both  in  the  ethical  and  physical  world, 
a  number  of  definite  laws  and  regulations.  If  he  does 
not  heed  them,  he  injines  himself,  he  inevitably  incurs 
punishment;  for  these  laws  (as  we  may  terra  them) 
are  so  wonderfully  constituted  and  adjusted,  that  they 
execute  themselves.  Punishment  for  this  violation 
need  not  be  inflicted  laboriously  and  arbitrarily  by 
external  agencies,  but  follows  with  necessity  as  an 
inevitable  sequence.  Like  rocks  in  the  sea,  amid  the 
roaring  waves  of  human  existence,  these  eternal  ethical 
laws  stand  unshaken  ;  and  however  often  the  billows 
attempt  to  wash  tliem  awa}',  surging  up  to  them,  and 
momentarily  covering  them,  the  billows  always  recede 
discouraged,  and  the  rocks  appear  anew,  brighter,  and, 
to  all  outward  appearances,  more  firmly  set  than  ever." 

These  words  of  a  noted  Swiss  writer  (Bitzius,  jun.) 
seem  to  indicate  clearly  what  must  be  the  true  object 
of  instruction  in  history.  The  true  object  of  all  edu- 
cation, in  fact,  seems  to  consist  in  making  the  human 
being  see  clearly  the  existence  of  this  ethical  order  of 
the  world,  which  is  subject  to  unchangeable  laws,  and 
can  be  observed  in  great  things  as  well  as  in  trifles. 
History  will  be  the  most  effectual  means  for  that 
purpose.  Education  must  also  bring  to  a  clear  con- 
ception the  greater  value  of  ideal  gifts,  and  their 
preferableness  to  material  ones  in   all   conditions   of 


nrsroiiv.  345 

life.  From  tliis  will,  hv  the  :ii(l  of  life's  cxpcnenec, 
lesnlt  that  wliieli  is  ciystulli/.ed  in  the  one  word  "char- 
acter." Agaiu,  history  is  the  most  effectual  means  to 
that  end. 

The  rising  generation  must  get  historical  knowledge, 
if  not  for  these  reasons,  then  certainly  for  the  purpose 
of  preserving  the  Rei)ublic,  and  perpetuating  its  free 
institutions.  The  future  can  be  read  between  the 
lines  of  the  records  of  the  past.  History  unfolds 
before  our  eyes  a  picture  of  what  past  generations 
thought,  aspired,  anil  acconiplislu'd.  Ilistor}"  shows  us 
our  owu  errors ;  and  these  are  all  the  more  readily 
seen,  since  it  offers  us  a  standard  of  measurement  in 
the  errors  of  other  nations. 

History  affords,  without  artificial  preparation,  an  in- 
sight into  human  affairs,  characters,  aspirations,  and 
destinies,  particularly  in  their  combinations,  as  the}' 
appear  in  the  affairs  of  the  state.  It  gives  knowledge 
of  man,  creates  ethiial  judgment,  promotes  i)olitical 
education.  A  study  of  history  fits  our  ciiildren  for  a 
place  in  the  world  better  than  any  ••  bread-and-butlcr 
study  "  will. 

History  has  a  just  claim  to  a  place  in  the  curriculum 
of  the  common  school  in  this  country,  where  partici- 
pation in  pulilic  life,  and  the  business  of  state,  is  not 
confined  to  officers  of  the  state,  but  where  every  citi- 
zen, by  means  of  his  one  modest  vote,  decides  the 
destiny  of  his  country. 

History  is  a  relative  term.  Many  give  it  no  wider 
meaning  than  a  narration  of  events  that  happened  in 


34(1      KDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF   THE    DAY. 

this  countiy  since  177G.  This  is  to  be  regretted.  It 
is  my  humble  opinion,  that  the  piii)ils  should  learn 
more  history  than  tliat  of  the  United  States,  although 
that  much  is  more  than  millions  of  them  ever  learn. 
Mirroring  one's  self  in  one's  own  accomi)lishments, 
and  measuring  one's  self  by  one's  own  deeds,  will 
cause  that  fatal  kind  of  iusanit}',  called  hallucination 
of  grandeur,  specimens  cf  which  can  be  noticed  in  all 
strata  of  society' ;  it  is  even  found  in  entire  nations, 
notably  in  the  French.  People  who  learn  no  other 
history  than  that  of  their  own  country  lose  the  best 
and  most  significant  part  of  history.  They  have  no 
standard  of  measurement,  and  settle  back  into  a  feel- 
ing of  complacenc}'  and  satisfaction  which  is  the  arch 
foe  of  progress. 

The  boy  who  claimed  that  Washington  was  the  first 
man,  and  upon  being  reminded  of  Adam,  said,  "Oh, 
well,  if  you  count  foreigners  in,"  —  that  boy  is  not  an 
imaginary  creation.  We  may  find  him  in  all  classes 
of  society,  and  in  every  part  of  the  Union,  but  most 
frequently  in  New  England. 

The  poet  was  right  who  said.  "  In  small  circles  the 
min4  remains  small."  The  wider  the  horizon  of  ob- 
servation and  thought,  the  greater  the  intelligence. 
Notice  the  similarit}'  between  physiology  and  psychol- 
og}-.  Hunters  who  search  the  distance  have  a  far 
vision :  bookworms  are  near-sighted.  Church-tower 
patriotism  is  on  the  increase  in  this  countiy. 

New  York's  "•  finest  police  in  the  world,"  Kala- 
mazoo's "finest  schoolhouse  in  the  world,"  and  like 


iiisTOiiV.  347 

expressions,  are  all  grown  on  the  same  soil, — over- 
estimation  of  self,  want  of  a  standard  of  measurement. 
Let  the  futnre  eitizen  of  the  Republie  study  the  history 
of  Greece,  Rome,  France,  Germany,  and  England  ;  let 
him  compare  these  counti"ies  with  his  own.  He  will 
appreciate  his  own  nation's  noble  deeds  the  better,  and 
judge  its  evil  tendencies  the  more  justly,  the  more  he 
learns  of  the  achievements  and  errors  of  otliei  nations. 

How  little  this  self-evident  truth  is  understood  by 
school-men,  may  be  seen  from  the  fact,  that  of  late  the 
study  of  history  is  recommended  to  be  replaced  l)y 
trigonometry,  "  becanse  the  latter  has  a  market  value." 
It  can  be  seen  also  from  school  statistics.  In  them  is 
found  documentary  evidence  to  the  startling  fact,  that 
general  history  is  not  taught,  except  to  some  fortunate 
few. 

The  Commissioner  of  C'onnnon  Schools  of  Ohio 
states  that  the  nuinlxT  of  [)ui)ils  enrollrd  in  the  (-(jni- 
mon  schools  of  the  State  in  IHS-l  was  7()2,7.'>J  ;  that  of 
these  not  ten  per  cent  studied  United-States  history, 
namely  Gy,98;").  And  the  number  of  those  who  studied 
general  history  was  so  insignificant,  that  he  saved  the 
State  some  humiliation  by  n<jt  mentioning  the  paltry 
few  hundred  who  attempted  to  get  a  glimpse  at  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome. 

Educational  considerations,  then,  and  the  future  of 
this  R('pul)lic,  our  country,  demand  that  the  3"onng 
generation  be  made  acquainted  with  history.  The 
nature  of  the  study  itself  deman<ls  that  history  be 
taken  np  at  an  early  age,  say  at  twelve  years,  or  even 


348      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

earlier.  In  higher  seats  of  learning  little  can  be  reme- 
died, if  the  student  does  not  bring  with  him  that  com- 
prehension of  national  history  and  political  institutions 
which  alone  will  make  the  further  study  of  history 
prolitable.  The  study  of  geography,  it  is  said,  must 
be  l)ased  ui)on  a  solid  foundation  of  sense-perce[»tion. 
This  maxim  holds  good  in  the  study  of  history :  a 
comprehension  of  historical  actions  and  their  motives 
cannot  be  gained,  unless  it  be  based  upon  a  lucid 
understanding  of  institutions  and  events  of  the  day. 
The  maxim,  "  From  the  near  to  the  remote,"  is  appli- 
cable in  the  teaching  of  liistor}',  as  well  as  in  other 
branches  of  study. 

But  there  is  another  reason  why  the  study  of  history 
should  begin  earl}-,  and  be  guided  well.  It  is  this : 
tiie  student  comes  to  the  high  school  or  college  with 
the  firml}'  laid  substructure  of  his  entire  being.  He 
comes  bent  upon  either  ideal  or  material  purposes. 
His  aspirations  have  a  certain  direction.  His  habits 
are  formed.  His  inclination  for  doing  work,  or  for 
shirking  it,  is  develo[)ed.  In  numerous  cases  he  has 
accustomed  himself  to  a  given  method  of  acquiring 
knowledge,  which  cannot  be  changed.  He  is  even  en- 
dowed with  predilections  which  no  professor  of  history 
would  find  possible  to  counteract.  To  leave,  there- 
fore, the  most  important  branch  of  studj'  for  the  up- 
building of  character  to  those  few  fortunate  ones  who 
enter  secondary  schools,  is,  to  term  it  mildly,  ver}' 
unwise. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  reitei-ate,   that    but  few 


iiisToiiy.  349 

ever  complete  the  course  of  study  iu  sccoudarv  schools, 
and  that  the  number  of  hoys  who  cuter  secondary  com- 
mon schools  is  insignificant  when  compared  with  that 
of  the  girls.  It  is  a  standing  reproach  to  our  system 
of  schools,  when  we  hear  that  in  monarchical  Germany 
general  history  is  taught  below  the  higii  school. 

Now,  hoio  history  should  be  tanght,  and  hij  whom,  are 
by  no  means  indifferent  questions.  The  pupil  must, 
first  of  all,  feel  some  of  that  fire  of  enthusiasm,  of  that 
warmth  of  conviction  and  ideality  wiiich  glows  in  the 
breast  of  the  teacher.  Then  he  will  awaken,  tlien  he 
will  begin  to  work  for  himself,  witli  himself,  and  upon 
himself. 

Without  this  awakening,  williout  this  self-activity, 
all  work  in  schools  is  in  vain,  mechauical,  and  unprofit- 
able. Deep  interest  in  the  subject,  and  faith  in  the  per- 
son of  the  teacher,  —  yes,  faith  pure  and  simple,  —  are 
the  most  powerful  k'veis  in  all  school-work,  but  iu  no 
other  study  are  they  more  directly  felt  than  in  histor}-. 
With  this  I  have  mentioned  the  most  important  factor, 
—  the  teacher. 

History  is  by  no  means  something  which  an}'  ama- 
teur may  read  up  to-day,  and  teach  to-morrow.  It  is 
a  conception  formed  of  many  perce[)tions  ;  it  is,  aphor- 
isticall}' speaking,  an  inner  experience  which  nuist  have 
become  the  teacher's  own,  and  of  whicli  he  can  speak 
as  readily  and  vividly  as  of  an  experience  of  every-day 
life. 

A  true  teacher  of  history  can  speak  of  the  Punic 
wars  with  as  mucii  autliority  and  decision  as  he  can 


350      KDUt'ATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

relate  events  whieli  happened  to  himself  only  3'es- 
tenlay. 

If  he  can  do  that,  he  will  teach  history  usefiiU}', 
■with  reference  to  the  present  time,  and  not  too  nsefiiUy 
in  the  sense  in  wliich  it  becomes  unhistorical  ;  that  is 
to  say,  not  so  that  tlie  comprehension  of  the  spirit  of 
times  and  men  is  lost,  and  all  is  saturated  with  cant, 
and  colored  with  predilections  of  the  teacher.  It  is 
a  grand  thing  to  be  a  teacher  of  history ! 

In  no  country  is  history  taught  less  than  in  America, 
and  in  no  country  are  more  laws  made  and  broken 
than  here.  The  former  is  the  cause  ;  the  latter,  the 
effect. 

Nowhere  are  theory  and  method  wanting  nowadaj's, 
especially  not  in  the  affairs  of  the  state.  The  machin- 
ery of  the  state  works  more  lively  than  at  the  time  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  though  that  period 
was  exceedingly  rich  in  action.  The  political  documents 
of  that  glorious  period  of  American  history,  from  1775 
to  1780.  fill  no  more  space  than  do  the  proceedings  of 
one  uneventful  session  of  Congress  nowadays.  But 
the  papers  written  by  the  founders  of  the  Union  all 
bear  the  unmistakable  stamp  of  greatness,  and  show 
indelible  traces  of  the  life  and  actions  of  a  greater  race 
than  ours,  —  greater  in  philosophic  insight,  greater  in 
purity  of  motives,  greater  in  deeds  and  aspirations. 
To  rear  a  generation  like  the  one  that  laid  the  firm 
foundation  of  this  remarkable  structure,  the  Un::ed 
States  of  America,  must  be  our  object,  or  we  could  not 
be  worthy  to  live  under  its  protection. 


iiisTonr.  351 

Dr.  Ililty  of  IJerii  says,  in  a  most  excellent  essay 
on  instiiietiun  in  history,  '^  Above  all,  it  seems  to  me, 
history  should  ha  seen^  and  not  merely  memorized.  It 
should  not  consist  in  mere  names  and  dates,  nor  in 
l)ombastie  glittering  generalities,  nor  yet  in  dry  synop- 
tical enumeration  of  events.  That  has  been  our  fate 
under  the  hands  of  an  amateur  in  history-teaching. 
He  gave  us  his  home-made  synopsis,  and  required  of 
us  to  learn  by  heart  from  a  text-book  of  general 
history,  which  was,  like  all  ti>xt-books  of  liistor}', 
superficial  to  a  fault." 

It  must  be  the  object  of  the  teacher  of  history  to 
make  the  matter  of  instruction  objective,  so  that  it  may 
become  nourishment  for  the  imagination  of  the  pupil. 
The  teacher  should  make  use  of  all  possible  auxiliaries, 
such  as  geographical  maps,  artistic  representations  of 
things  and  events.  He  should  consult  and  make  fre- 
quent use  of  standard  works  on  special  history,  and 
induce  his  pupils  to  refer  to  them.  But  let  him  shun 
the  "  terrible  temptations  "  of  overloading  the  memory 
of  his  pupils  with  indigestible  dates  and  names,  which 
will  soon  ))e  forgotten,  and  only  have  the  fatal  effect 
of  weakening  ihe  memory.  Pupils  who  have  merely 
memorized  history  will  not  be  able  to  recall  historical 
events  and  personages  with  accuracy:  they  will  inva- 
riably "  kill  the  wrong  man,  at  the  wrong  time,  in  the 
wrong  place,  and  for  the  wrong  reason." 

The  greater  number  of  educah-d  peisoiis  can, 
shortly  after  leaving  school,  recall  but  very  few  of 
the  things  they  learned  by  no  other  agency  than  the 


352      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  UAV. 

printed  page  and  the  metnory.  And  as  to  dates,  I 
dare  say,  none  remain  inalienable  property  of  the 
learner,  which  he  can  at  any  time  command  or  turn 
to  account.  How  few  pupils  obtain  a  tolerably  correct 
idea  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  world,  or  of  German, 
French,  and  English  life  during  the  Middle  Ages  !  It 
is  a  lamentable  fact,  that  no  period  of  history  is  ever 
presented  in  its  totality  in  schools,  so  as  to  afford  a 
bird's-eye  view.  If  the  reader  be  incredulous,  let  him, 
in  the  company  of  friends  and  educated  persons,  pro- 
pose such  questions  as  these  :  — 

What  was  tlie  general  state  of  affairs  in  Europe  dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  century?  Who  was  Pope  then  ?  Who 
were  the  great  potentates  then?  What  were  tli^  gen- 
eral boundaries  of  France,  Italy,  and  Germany?  What 
remarkable  events  happened  during  that  time?  In 
what  state  or  condition  was  law,  art,  education,  reli- 
gion, or  industry  and  commerce? 

Or  take  an)'  other  centur)-. 

The  reader  will  soon  find  how  vague  are  the  ideas 
upon  historical  facts  among  his  friends,  and  how  little 
the  faculty  of  transferring  one's  thoughts  back  into 
remote  periods  of  history  is  developed.  How  can  it 
be,  when  the  pupils  in  school  are  fed  with  detache.'t 
facts  and  names  wliich  appear  to  them  in  no  other  con- 
nection than  that  they  follow  each  other  chrouologi- 
cally  ?  The  pupils  are  not  made  to  see  the  causal  nexus 
between  the  histories  of  different  nations.  Historical 
conceptions  which  are  vividly  imprinted  upon  the 
memory,  and  influence  the  mind  and  character  of  the 


HISTORY.  353 

yoni)<T,  arc  never  tlie  result  of  mere  dates  and  names, 
or  of  synoptical  presentation.  There  is  a  world  of 
difference  between  the  synopsis  of  a  good  novel,  and 
the  novel  itself.  • 

History  ic ill  ever  remain  a  composition,  —  the  work 
of  art  of  a  master.  It  is  never  a  lifeless  pliotograph 
that  can  he  Iiandeil  aronnd.  No  one  can  grasp  en* 
represent  faithfully  the  events  of  even  a  single  year, 
with  all  its  simultaneous  facts  and  events,  just  as  they 
occurred.  He  will  he  obliged  to  conil)in('  and  gioui* 
them,  and  thus  create  a  fancy  picture  v/hich  bears  the 
true  features  only  in  its  general  character. 

The  histoiian  and  the  teacher  of  history  are,  or 
ought  to  be,  aitists  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  But 
the  talent  to  create  clear  conceptions  and  vivid  inner 
rei)resentations  of  historical  events,  and  to  suggest  or 
cause  them  in  the  imagination  of  others,  is  almost  as 
rare  as  creative  geniuses  are  in  the  arts  of  i>ot'try,  paint- 
ing, and  sculpture.  Not  even  a  comi)rehensi()n  of  the 
desirability  of  such  models  in  hislorical  presentation 
is  found  frequently.  And  3'et  we  have  in  literature 
admirable  masterpieces  of  historical  writing  which 
can  be  recommended  heartily  to  teachers  and  pupils. 
They  creati'  indelible  impressions  n[)on  the  imagina- 
tion. 

Think  of  Thiciry's  "  Ilistor}'  of  the  ^lerovingians." 
Carlyle's  "  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Cromwell,"  Car- 
lyle's  "French  Revolution."  I'rescott's  ''('oncpiest 
of  Pern,"  and  the  wonderfully  objective  description  of 
the  l)effinnin":  of   Norman   rule   in    Enjiland   as   found 


854      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   TIIIC    DAY. 

in  the  history  of  the  Al)l)e\'  of  SI.  EdimiiKlsljuiy  (in 
''  Past  and  Present"). 

He  who  reads  tiiese  books  will  get  a  positive  picture, 
a  picture  iu  bold  relief,  of  the  respective  times,  and  of 
the  persons  acting  in  them.  Something  of  their  spirit 
will  touch  him ;  and  their  history  is  henceforth  en- 
graved upon  tlie  tablet  of  his  memory,  as  is  an  actual 
ex[)erieuce.  Such  books  have  a  soul,  something  that 
cannot  be  found  in  a  text-book  of  history.  The  latter 
is  a  graveyard.  Only  masters  can  produce  pieces  of 
art ;  but  since  good  books  like  those  mentioned  above, 
and  many  others,  are  easily  accessible,  they  should  be 
made  auxiliaries  to  the  lessons  in  school  and  to  the 
studies  at  home. 

In  connection  with  this,  it  may  be  urged,  let  the 
pupils  read  and  study  important  historical  documents. 
They  have  a  peculiar  convincing  power,  and  can  in  no 
way  be  substituted  by  word  of  mouth,  and  certainly 
not  by  a  synopsis. 

No  one  who  ever  read  the  (Swiss)  Sempach  Letter, 
or  the  (Augsburg)  Confession  of  Faith,  or  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  or  the  (French)  Declaration 
of  Human  Rights,  or  Washington's  Farewell  Address, 
or  Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proclamation,  or  King 
Frederick  Wilhelm's  Appeal  to  his  People  in  1812,  and 
imbibed  some  of  the  spirit  that  dictated  these  papers, 
will  ever  forget  them,  oi-  their  leading  ideas,  and  the 
events  connected  with  them.  The  very  fact  that  such 
words  have  l)een  used,  that  such  things  have  been  said, 
that  men  have  thus  made  history,  will  indelibly  imprint 


iiisToiiV.  355 

itself  upon  the  memory.  How  many  educated  persons 
are  able  to  give  the  leading  ideas  of  these  immortal 
docnments?  Test  your  friends  by  the  fireside,  dear 
reader,  and  oh  the  di.si)lay  of  ignoianee  you  will 
notice  ! 

But  I  must  come  to  a  close.  Dr.  Ililty  says,  in 
substance.  "  I  make  tiiis  "heretic'  statement,  that  our 
text-books  in  history  are  much  too  metliodically  ar- 
ranged. They  [)ermit  free  elbow-room  to  neither 
teacher  nor  pupils  ;  I  mean,  free  scope  for  self-think- 
ing and  self-activity.  They  make  all  original  develop- 
ment next  to  impossible.  The  better  the  text-book, 
the  weaker  the  teacher."  The  reader  may  take  this 
cum  grano  sails,  and  try  to  digest  it. 

Summary.  —  My  object  has  l)een  to  show,  (1)  that 
knowledge  of  history  is  a  reipiisite  of  good  citizenshi[) ; 
(2)  that  good  instruction  in  history  is  conducive  to  the 
upbuilding  of  character;  (3)  that  history  should  there- 
fore be  taught  in  the  common  schools  ;  (4)  that  instruc- 
tion in  histor}'  should  begin  earlier  than  is  commonly 
done;  (.">)  that  it  should  not  be  confined  to  histor}'  of 
our  own  country,  because  that  would  engender  megalo- 
mania ;  (G)  that  the  teacher  of  history  must  be  a  true 
teaclu-r.  not  a  text-book  rider;  (7)  that  instruction  in 
hist(nT  should  be  assisted  by  reference  to  notewoitliy 
l»ooks  on  special  history,  and  distinguished  historical 
d<j<'unu'nls. 


356      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   TIIK    hAV. 

CAUSE  AND  EFFECT  IN  IIISTOllY. 
(aFTKR   a   TREATISK   of    I'HOFKSSOR   iionigsiikim.) 

Not  only  in  the  history  of  our  eaitli's  foniiiition, 
but  iu  the  history  of  man,  of  nations  as  well,  has  the 
"  eataclysm-theor}' "  ceased  to  be  tenable.  Modern 
physical  science  no  longer  accepts  the  statement  that 
worlds  and  organisms  are  completely  destroyed  at  cer- 
tain crises,  and  continents  and  oceans  arranged  in  a 
different  order  to  form  an  entirely  new  creation.  And, 
like  geology,  scientific  history  —  that  is,  historical 
investigation  —  searches  among  all  transmitted  facts 
for  cause  and  effect.  Only  contemporaries  are  sur- 
prised. 

By  succeeding  generations  cause  and  effect  are  seen 
to  be  the  scheme  planned  long  in  advance,  the  opera- 
tion of  prepared  expedients  and  mechanical  forces. 
Such  a  view  behind  the  scenes  of  the  world's  theatre 
is  often  painful,  and  yd  helpful,  to  the  mind.  For 
wounds  inflicted  by  truth  do  not  cause  loss  in  vital 
energy,  but  great  gain.  Indeed,  it  is  only  as  we  assure 
ourselves  of  the  true  nature  of  the  forces  at  work  in 
universal  history,  that  we  can  reconcile  ourselves  with 
the  experience,  that  the  result  often  falls  far  behind 
justifiable  expectations ;  that  the  advantage  of  one 
individual  or  nation  is  to  the  detriment  of  another  ;  that 
without  sacrifice  no  progress  is  possible. 

The  causes  of  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  Republic 
form  the  subject  of  this  discourse.  In  this  connection, 
the  thought  occurred  to  me,  to  point  out,  at  especially 


iiisTOiiV.  357 

n(>t:vl)le  periods  in  tliis  liistoiiciil  skotoh,  the  reseni- 
lihiiiccs  existing  in  (Mir  ;j;ovcniin('nt  of  to-(l:iy.  and  to 
driiw  parallels;  l)nt  this  seemed  iseaicely  api»ropiiate 
for  an  assembly  like  the  i)resent.  He  must  he  stricken 
with  hlindnt'ss  wlio  could  not  discern  the  likeness 
Jtetween  the  chuigers  affecting  the  government  in  IJome 
and  in  America.  Whoever  will  have  the  goo(hiess  to 
follow  me  attentively  will  he  tempted,  at  several  prom- 
inent points,  to  exchange  the  names  of  American 
statesmen  for  Roman  ones  ;  so  similar,  so  identical, 
are  the  conditions  in  the  Union  with  those  of  Rome 
two  thousand  years  ago. 

Some  one  may  wish  to  suggest,  that,  among  the 
nations  mentioned  in  history,  there  may  be  at  least 
one  better  suited  than  the  Roman  to  the  considera- 
tion given  in  this  place.  The  history  of  the  Roman 
people,  I  admit,  is  by  no  means  the  one  which  most 
charms  the  human  mind.  In  this  respect  it  is  far  sur- 
passed l)y  the  (ii'eek,  iiartieularly  the  Attic.  1  have, 
however,  chosen  the  Roman,  liecause  it  is  in  several 
points  similar  to  the  Iii.story  of  the  United  States, 
though  ill  others,  to  be  sure,  as  unlike  as  possible. 
Fuitherinore,  it  is  of  peculiar  value  to  us  as  citizens 
of  the  Uniti'd  States,  since  no  other  historical  ep<jch 
is  so  well  litted  to  serve  as  a  stcjrehouse  of  fruitful 
teaching  for  the  circumstances  by  which  we  are  sur- 
rounded. Yet  that  alone  is  not  the  cause  of  my  select- 
ing the  Roman  history.  It  is,  tliat,  of  all  histories, 
this  one  is  tlu'  niijst  instructive;  foi'  knowledge  of  th«' 
laws  in  accordance  with  which  states  rise,  llourish,  and 


358      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE    DAY. 

decline.  In  liarmony  with  the  serious,  prudent  eliarac- 
ter  of  its  people,  it  presents  more  clearly  than  does 
any  other  a  gradual,  progressive,  self-unfolding  develop- 
ment of  all  governmental  relations.  Not  easily  could 
a  state  be  found  in  which  both  the  di-tail  of  outward 
changes  and  the  unfolding  of  the  inner  national  life 
have  i)roceeded  so  regularly.  Outwaidly  and  inwardly, 
in  the  prosperity  and  in  the  decay  of  the  natiou,  a 
sudden  change  is  scarcely  visible. 

This  peculiarity  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  exler- 
nal  history.  From  what  slender,  almost  imperceptible 
beginnings,  rose  the  Roman  power  !  The  starting-point 
of  that  mighty  empire  was  a  city  in  a  district  which 
would  have  offered  scarcely  space  enough  for  our  little 
city.  This  gradual,  uninterrupted  growth  was  by  uo 
means  the  sequence  of  a  sudden  illumination  of  politi- 
cal good  fortune  ;  but  nothing  more  raid  nothing  less 
than  discriminating  judgment,  unusual  persistence,  and 
a  peculiar  aptitude  for  war,  were  the  causes  that  led  the 
city  to  subdue,  first  the  surrounding  regions,  then  all 
Italy,  and  that  the  Eomau  power  finally  reached  out 
farther  with  resistless  certainty,  until  the  boundaries 
of  the  empire  included  nearly  all  of  the  then  known 
world.  The  largest,  fairest  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface,  as  then  explored,  were  either  Roman  prov- 
inces or  tributary  states. 

And  just  as  gradually  did  the  life  of  the  tree  decline, 
so  that  its  fall  at  last  could  occur  almost  without  noise. 

But  still  more  than  the  external,  do  the  infernal  rela- 
tions afford  the  sight  of  a  slow,  one  might  sav  thought- 


HiSTOiiV.  359 

fill,  advance.  Nowhere  else  may  be  traced  so  clearly 
the  i)rogress  of  a  uationul  growth  in  Nature's  own 
unhurried  manner.  Until  the  year  509  B.C.,  —  that 
is,  for  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  j-ears, — Rome 
was  a  monarchy.  It  is  true,  by  the  unanimous  report 
of  antiquity,  this  early  monarchy  was  overthrown 
suddenly  and  with  violence  ;  but  on  closer  inspection 
we  see  that  it  no  longer  had  foundation  in  popular 
approval.  The  republican  form  of  government  was 
prepared  long  before,  as  plainly  told  bj'  early  writ- 
ers, Livy  in  particular.  Then  followed  the  conUict  of 
ranks  and  classes.  Fully  two  hundred  j^ears  elapsed 
from  the  beginning  of  the  contest,  before  the  common 
people,  wresting  one  immunity  after  another  from  the 
aristocracy,  attained  to  the  full  possession  of  political 
rights  ;  and  the  organization  of  the  government  thereby 
reached  its  highest  consummation. 

In  precisely  similar  manner  as  the  progress,  is  the 
ruin  of  the  republican  constitution  finally  brought 
about,  without  shock  or  violent  act.  No,  the  splendid 
Roman  Republic,  after  it  has  conquered  the  globe, 
is  thoroughly  unsettled  in  a  long,  quiet  struggle,  by 
various  deadly  conditions,  and  the  way  for  its  fall 
thereby  so  imperceptibly  i)rei)ared,  that  the  appearance 
m  conclusion  of  the  "  oiu'-man-pijwer  "  of  C'icsarism 
is  made  to  api)ear  inmitabli!  nocessity.  Even  the 
thought  of  a  return  to  the  old  republican  form  can 
no  more  arisa. 

Since  thus,  in  tlie  course  of  Rome's  history,  violent 
transitions  occur  very  seltlom,  but  instead,  the  germs 


360      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAT. 

of  now  forms  muy  l)e  traced  in  iindistiuhed  ij^rowtli 
throni!;li  lonijj  periods,  the  study  of  tliis  history  offers 
opportunity  for  comparison  as  does  that  of  no  otl)er 
people.  But  in  all  Konian  history  no  other  period 
offers  so  much  instruction  as  the  one  which  witnessed 
the  downfall  of  its  republican  government. 

When  a  free  state,  whose  citizens  have  conquered 
the  world  by  their  wonderful  strength,  adapts  itself 
\vith  such  composure  to  a  monarchy,  that  tlie  latter 
is  never  again  seriously  opposed,  the  constitutional 
change  must  indeed  be  accounted  for  by  causes  of  the 
most  unanswerable  character.  The  merely  incidental 
conquest  by  a  despot  could  in  no  way  explain  it. 
.Striking  evidence  is  found,  how  little  a  monarchy  thus 
established  may  count  upon  continuance  among  the 
numberless  examples  of  Greek  despots  who  were  soon 
compelled  to  yield  again  to  the  popular  republican 
pressure.  In  Rome,  on  the  contrar}',  liberty  is  b}'  no 
means  restored  through  Coesar's  assassination  ;  but  a 
fresh  struggle  for  supremacy  begins,  which  does  not 
cease  initil  Octavianus  succeeds  in  establishing  his 
authority.  And  from  that  time  on,  whatever  opposi- 
tion occurs  is  directed  against  the  person  of  the  mon- 
arch, not  against  the  fact  of  monarchy ;  which  is 
conclusive  proof  that  royal  power  must  have  had  deep- 
reaching  roots  in  the  altered  character  and  correspond- 
ing condition  of  the  people.  If  we  now  direct  our 
attention  towards  those  conflicts  of  factions,  preceding 
and  direct!}'  assisting  the  fall  of  the  Republic,  and 
compare  them,  according  to  their  origin  and  aim,  with 


HISTORY.  361 

the  earlier  ones  between  ratrieians  and  Plebeians,  we 
sliall  (ind,  first  of  all,  a  very  remarkable  elianu'e  in  the 
national  character,  than  which  none  other  eoiild  l»e 
more  favorable  to  the  subversion  of  free  government. 
For  instance,  while  the  earlier  strifes  between  the 
nobility  and  the  common  people  were  almost  always 
waged  b}'  the  populace  in  behalf  of  their  own  well- 
understood  interest,  we  now  see  the  people  set  into 
commotion,  even  if  under  the  pretence  of  their  advan- 
tage, merely  for  tiie  selfish  purposes  of  their  leaders. 
Thus  Caesar  ranged  himself,  from  the  beginning  of  liis 
carcei",  on  the  side  of  the  popular  party,  and  sought  to 
commend  himself  to  it  by  his  agrarian  laws  and  other 
favors.  But  who  does  not  see,  from  the  whole  history 
of  the  ambitious  man,  that  by  these  means  he  wished 
to  make  the  people  instrumental  to  his  personal  aims ; 
and  that  they  were  merely  the  price  for  which  the 
peo[)le  helped  along  C'a'sar's  ambitious  schemes? 

I  must  call  your  attention  to  another  i)liase  of  the 
subject,  from  which  it  likewise  follows  that  the  people 
in  general  had  become  a  spiritless  tool  in  the  hands  of 
their  leaders,  and  that  their  vital  interests  were  of  no 
consequence  to  the  weal  or  woe  of  the  state.  We 
notice,  for  instance,  that  during  the  civil  wars,  many 
a  time,  one  battle  decides  the  contest ;  and  we  can 
draw  the  conclusion  that  every  thing  depended  on  the 
person  of  the  leader,  whom  they  renounced  at  once 
when  the  prospect  of  reward  had  vanished  from  his 
side. 

But  if  a  people  which  calls  itsrll"  republican  permits 


362      EDUCATTONAL    TOPTCS   OF  THE    DAY. 

itself  to  be  thus  maltreated,  it  must  fare  ill  with 
its  love  of  liberty.  The  possibility  is  at  least  sug- 
gested, that  it  may  submit  to  the  yoke  of  des[)otism 
without  resistance.  Both  things,  however, — the  in- 
difference of  the  masses  to  constitutional  liberty,  as 
well  as  the  strife  of  party  chiefs  for  unlimited  exten- 
sion of  power,  could  have  arisen  only  from  deep  moral 
degradation.  The  perversion  of  morality,  which  in- 
creased in  equal  measure  with  external  power,  is  the 
fundamental  evil  of  that  time  ;  yes,  it  is  a  prominent 
cause  of  the  overthrow  of  the  republican  govern- 
ment, though  by  no  means  the  only  one,  as  I  mean 
to  show  farther  on. 

In  all  historical  writings,  ancient  and  modern,  men- 
tion is  chiefly  made  of  the  moral  depravity  among  the 
influential  and  powerful  classes,  when  speaking  of 
the  deterioration  of  the  Roman  people.  To  me,  on 
the  contrary,  it  seems  as  if  the  moral  sense  of  the 
lower  classes  is  by  far  the  more  important  and  the 
more  significant  element  for  the  dismemberment  of 
the  government. 

But  if  we  question  how  it  comes  that  the  plebs 
during  the  last  century  of  the  free  state  became  so 
contemptible  a  class,  there  is  presented  for  considera- 
tion as  the  peculiar  evil  of  the  state,  on  one  side,  the 
gradual  increase  in  the  vast  class  without  property, 
the  pauper  element ;  on  the  other  side,  the  vast  accu- 
mulation of  wealth,  and  especial!}-  of  landed  property, 
in  the  hands  of  the  few.  Between  these  extremes  the 
middle   class   stands   on    poor  footing,  and  even  dis- 


irisTonv.  363 

appears  entireh'  in  consc()iienco  of  impoverishment. 
But  on  this  class  depends  tlie  strengtli  of  every  state  ; 
the  middle  class  in  its  turn  depends  ui)ou  agriculture. 
The  impoverishment  of  this  class,  however,  and  tiie 
decay  of  agriculture,  hy  which  the  death-blow  was 
given  to  the  welfare  of  the  small  land-owners,  began 
during  one  of  the  most  brilliant  periods  in  Roman 
history,  the  Second  Punic  War  (-ilH-iOl  B.C.). 

It  was  the  most  bitter  revenge  that  the  finalh*  de- 
feated Hannibal  of  Carthage  could  have  taken  on 
Rome  at  his  departure  from  Italy,  that  in  consequence 
of  his  victorious  passage  through  the  whole  peninsula, 
in  the  year  201  B.C.,  he  left  behind  him  an  Italy 
v»'asted  and  reduced  beyond  example.  Already  during 
the  wai-  had  tlie  small  land-owners,  disregarding  their 
ruined  possessions,  rushed  in  crowds  towards  the  city 
of  Rome  ;  nor  could  they  be  again  removed  from  it, 
not  even  by  force. 

Duiing  the  wearisome  war  the  burdens  of  debt 
among  the  small  i)roprietors,  a  class  already  greatly 
enlarged,  increased  so  much  that  it  was  scarcely  possi- 
ble for  them,  after  the  close  of  the  war,  to  cultivate 
their  lands  again. 

Sf)me  of  you  know  from  experience  what  conse- 
quences follow  in  the  train  of  war.  and  likewise  liow 
diffieiilt  it  is  to  overcome  these  consequences;  and  now 
remember  that  the  Second  Punic  War  was  waged  with 
the  greatest  severity  in  their  own  land  for  seventeen 
3'ears.  This  war  resulted  in  a  devastation  of  the  open 
country  such  as  occurred  in  greater  degree  onlv  in  the 


3G4      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC'S   OF   THE    DAY. 

Thirty  Years'  War  during  tlie  seveiitecntli  centiir}'.  lu 
addition  to  tliis,  reflect  tliat  what  had  been  so  nith- 
lessl}^  destroyed  in  Italy  in  one  year,  required  the  labor 
of  ten  years  to  be  restoied.  For  this  reason  the  poor 
man  lost  courage,  and  we  all  know  that  the  Latin  race 
lacked  the  unconquerable  vitality  of  the  Germanic 
race.  The  ground  adapted  to  cultivation  passed  more 
and  more  into  the  hands  of  the  wealthy  few,  who 
through  bargain,  usurj',  and  craft  or  even  violence, 
dispossessed  the  humble  proprietor,  and  even  acquired 
the  exclusive  use  of  the  incorporated  common  lands, 
in  many  cases  even  secured  ownership.  Moreover, 
they  had  their  land  worked  by  slaves ;  thus  laud 
ceased  to  give  support  to  free  citizens. 

This  decay  of  the  middle  class  had  so  extended  up 
to  the  year  i;37,  that  Tiberius  Gracchus,  during  a  jour- 
ney through  Elruria,  found  slaves  at  the  plough  in 
almost  every  case  ;  on  which  account,  in  an  effective 
speech  to  the  people,  he  used  the  words,  "The  so- 
called  masters  of  the  world  do  not  possess  a  clod  of 
earth  as  their  own  propert}'." 

The  city  of  Rome  appeared  the  most  natural  place 
of  refuge  to  all  the  ruined  tribes  in  Italy ;  and,  of 
course,  an  excessive  increase  of  the  poorer  class 
occurred  in  consequence.  But  even  here  no  respecta- 
ble occupation  could  be  found  except  for  him  who  was 
adapted  or  inclined  to  the  militarA-  profession.  Ancient 
Kome  recognized  onh'  two  honorable  vocations  for  the 
free-lM)rn  citizen.  —  agriculture  and  war.  Trade  and 
industrial   pursuits   had   always   been   foreign   to   the 


HISTORY.  3G5 

Ivijiiuins.  They  proudly  held  these  to  be  necessary 
evils,  and  unworthy  oeeupations  for  a  free  man.  Tliey 
rather  left  it  to  foreigners  and  serfs  to  enjoy  the  lich 
profit  which  manual  lal)or  and  mercantile  enterijrises 
hnng  in.  than  that  they  should  have  sullied  their 
dignity  with  the  stain  of  vulgar  occupations.  All 
professional  lal)or,  even  the  decoration  of  the  palaces, 
was  performed  by  slaves,  men  and  women.  All  the 
conditions  mentioned  taken  together  formed  the  nat- 
ural foundation,  on  which  was  fornK'(l,  more  quickly  in 
Rome  than  in  the  Europe  of  to-day,  a  frightfully  large 
class  of  the  lower  order.  This  class,  as  everywhere, 
was  driven  by  the  very  nature  of  the  case  into  im- 
morality, and  became  a  tool  to  be  bought  with  gold, 
and  reaily  for  any  thing,  —  a  class,  too,  which  did  not 
shrink  from  revolts  and  revolutions,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, regarded  these  as  welcome  opportunities. 

And  there  was  no  lack  of  persons  to  bribe  the  hands 
of  this  all-powerful  order  for  enterprises  of  such 
character  ;  f(jr  the  ancient  lofly  Roman  spirit  had  also 
disappeared  from,  the  vpper  ranks  of  society,  and  in 
its  [ilace  luxur\'  and  avarice  had  entered,  coupled  with 
boundless  ambition.  These  were  in  a  high  degree  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  up[»er  classes  in  those 
days. 

The  old  proverbial  simplicity  of  a  C'incinnatus, 
Curius,  and  Fal)rit'ius,  couM  have  continued  only  so 
long  as  Rome  luid  retaineil  its  simple  conditions, 
when  its  wars  were  waged  only  with  pastoral  people 
whose  conquest  only  extended  its  might,  but  tlid  not 


3(36      EDUCATIONAL    TOI'K.S    OF   THE    DAY. 

increase  wealth  by  enormous  booty  and  spoils.  A 
crisis  must  have  intervened,  when  contact  begun  witli 
the  superfine,  weiiltliy,  and  luxurious  Greeks.  The 
subjugation  of  the  Eastern  empires  entirely  destroyed 
the  last  protection  of  the  ancient  Ronian  spirit. 

The  poet  calls  it  Nemesis,  the  Nemesis  of  universal 
history.  Foolish  talk  !  Nothing  is  presented  in  such 
events  but  the  results  of  given  causes.  The  rushing 
together  of  two  streams  does  not  double,  but  qvjid- 
rnples,  the  force  of  their  waters.  Let  no  one  wonder, 
tlierefore,  at  the  deca\'  of  morality  in  ancient  Rome  ; 
let  him  see  therein  nothing  remarkable.  It  simph'  but 
plainly  proves,  that  every  nation  which  does  not,  or 
can  not,  refrain  from  intimate  contact  with  otlier  nations, 
stands  under  the  law  of  universal  application  ;  in  other 
words,  is  weakened  by  them.  It  must  have  happened 
as  it  did  happen  ;  for  with  the  acquisition  of  higher 
culture  from  others  the  disadvantages  of  that  culture 
must  also  be  accepted.  And  these  disadvantages 
increased  in  geometrical  progression.  With  the  taste 
for  greater  refinement,  for  the  art-treasures  of  the 
Greeks,  the  Grecian  idea  of  living  held  swaj',  and 
Grecian  luxury  and  fastidiousness  entered  into  the 
homes  of  the  Roman  nobles.  The  first  traces  of  this 
change  in  the  national  character  likewise  appear  in  the 
time  of  the  Second  Punic  AVar.  The  rol)ber3^  of  works 
of  art  became  a  habit  with  time.  Extortion  in  the 
enemy's  land  increased  systematically.  In  order  :c 
exhibit  in  its  full  force  this  characteristic,  which  had 
become     2;eneral     with     time     amonii    the     influential 


nisTonv.  3G7 

Romans,  it  will  suffice  to  cite,  instead  of  many,  one 
cous[>icnous  example,  which  has  attained  unenviable 
celebrity  through  Cicero's  orations  :  I  mean  Verrcs.  the 
governor  of  Sicily,  who  was  publicl}'  accused  by  Cicero 
in  his  famous  "  Orations  against  Verres  '  on  account 
of  his  shameful  oppression  ;  and  Cicero  so  vigorously 
attached  him,  that  he  voluntarily  went  into  exile. 
Cicero  does  not  hesitate,  in  his  accusations,  to  put  into 
the  mouths  of  the  inhabitants  of  Sicily  the  words, 
"  Verres  has  plundered  all  the  gold  and  silver  and  treas- 
ures of  the  island  during  his  administration."  Now, 
whether  that  be  a  rhetorical  exaggeration,  or  not,  the 
essential  fact  is  not  affected.  When  he  reports  the 
value  of  the  booty  at  a  thousand  million  sesterces,  he 
seems  specially  to  confirm  the  publicity  of  the  robbery, 

AVhat  more  natural  than  that  with  the  rapacity  de- 
scribed, with  this  influx  of  the  whole  world's  wealth 
into  Rome,  the  most  unbounded  dissipation,  and  to  us 
unim-.iginable  extravagance,  should  go  hand  in  hand? 
Jn  consequence  of  these  things,  Rome  became  a  cess- 
pool of  vice.  The  scope  of  this  discourse  does  not 
permit  me  to  go  into  a  closer  description  of  the  refined 
debaucheries.  Neither  is  this  the  place  to  picture  in 
detail  the  monstrous  extravagance  which  began  to  pre- 
vail at  banquets  and  spectacles,  in  dress  and  buildings 
and  furniture. 

Let  the  remark  suffice,  that  Sallust,  altliough  hiinsi'lf 
living  in  the  midst  of  the  depiaved  age,  and  thcrefi)re 
very  moderate  in  his  judgment,  introdiici's  his  shoit 
recital    of    these    evils    of    the    ti'.nt'    witli    the    words. 


308      EDrCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  Til?:   DAV. 

"Those  things  would  seem  in  , the  higliest  degree  in- 
credible to  him  who  had  not  seen  them  with  his  own 
e^'es."  Indeed,  one  may,  even  without  possessing  a 
special  acquaintance  with  the  histor}'  of  luxury,  affirm 
without  hesitation  that  never,  in  the  course  of  all 
history,  had  dissipation  and  excess  reached  a  similar 
height  as  among  the  Romans  of  the  higher  ranks,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  at  no  time  could  the  means 
for  these  have  been  provided  so  profusely.  AVhat  fool- 
ishly large  sums  were  expended  by  single  citizens  of 
Rome  for  articles  of  luxury,  may  be  learned  from  the 
following  facts.  Cato  hall  tai)estries  brought  from 
Babylon,  for  the  cushions  of  his  banquet-liall,  which 
cost  him  eight  hundred  thousand  sesterces  (thirty  thou- 
sand dollars).  The  greatest  extravagance,  however, 
was  reached  in  furniture  made  from  the  cypress-wood 
growing  at  the  foot  of  the  Atlas  Mountains.  The 
peculiarity  of  this  wood  consists  iu  a  knot  in  the  root, 
which  after  preparation  exhibits  a  resemblance  to  a 
panther-skin  or  peacock-feathers.  One  million  sester- 
ces (thirty-five  thousand  dollars)  was  paid  for  two 
such  taljles,  owned  by  Gallus  and  Cethegus ;  and 
Cicero,  although  he  was  not  rich,  paid  as  much  for 
one  such  table.  Our  statesmen  and  senators  have  (the 
Lord  be  thanked  I)  not  yet  carried  things  as  far  as 
that.  Crassus  is  reported  to  have  owned  real  estate 
in  the  cit}'  of  Rome  to  the  amount  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy  millions  of  sesterces  (twelve  million  dollars). 

Reverence  for  law    disappeared;    truth    and    faith 
were  subjects  for  ridicule  ;  perjury,  a  daily  occurrence. 


HISTORY.  360 

Marriage  lost  its  sanctity,  education  was  given  up 
entirely.  The  youthful  Romans  of  rank  grew  up  ainul 
the  improprieties,  crimes,  and  outrages  which  their 
parents  —  j'es,  even  the  state  itself  —  shamelessly  com- 
mitted. The  excavated  walls  of  Pompeii  hear  witness 
to  acts  which  seem  inerediljle,  and  which  no  author  had 
the  courage  to  chronicle.  The  brushes  or  colors  of 
the  artists  proved  to  be  vile  enough  for  the  occasion. 
How  must  such  examples  have  taken  effect  on  youthful 
dispositions,  especially  as  the  education  and  training 
of  the  young  was  commonly  intrusted  to  slaves  of 
Greek  descent ! 

Let  us  once  more  hear  Sallust  in  regard  to  the  result 
of  such  training:  ''The  disposition  of  youth,  eaily 
directed  towards  evil,  could  not  easily  escai)e  an  incli- 
nation towards  sensual  pleasures  ;  all  the  more  eagerly 
was  it  bent  in  ever^-  way  upon  wealth  and  lavish  ex- 
penditure." Now,  if  the  paternal  property  did  not 
suffice  for  the  unlimited  expenses,  if  every  thing  had 
been  squandered  or  entirel}'  covered  with  debts,  a 
longing  glance  was  turned  toward  the  provinces  in 
order  to  extort  from  these  the  means  for  new  i)rodi- 
gality.  But,  on  the  oilier  hand,  it  was  pos-sil»Ie  to 
obtain  these  provincial  apiK)intmeuts  only  through 
bribery. 

With  the  mention  of  these  competitions,  I  have  in- 
dicated the  ground  upon  which  the  baseness  of  the 
upper  classes  and  the  recklessness  of  the  populace  met. 
And  nothing  is  more  natural  than  that  these  two 
extremes  sh<juld  meet.     This  reciprocal   action  greatly 


370      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

precipitated  the  further  ruin  uiid  destruction  of  the 
government. 

From  the  Third  Punic  War,  and  uheady  during  its 
continuance,  the  occupation  of  oflicial  positions  de- 
l)ended  no  longer  upon  worth  and  capahility,  but  upon 
the  amount  and  extent  of  the  bribe.  The  destitute, 
suffering  peoi)le  regarded  bribery  as  a  reguUir  means 
oi"  livelihood.  It  did  not  stop  with  electoral  corruption, 
which  was  done  in  secret,  and  often  amounted  to  mil- 
lions of  sesterces :  no,  ambition  and  party  strife  on 
the  one  hand,  cowardice  and  depravity,  sometimes 
sheer  starvation,  on  the  other,  were  of  such  a  char- 
acter, that  the  people  made  bold  to  present  themselves 
to  the  brokers  who  bougiit  not  only  the  votes  of  the 
populace  for  elections,  but  also  engaged  in  advance 
their  strong  right  arn)S  for  murder  and  strife.  All  too 
often  such  scenes  occurred  at  elections.  Laws  proved 
of  no  avail  against  the  general  depravity  and  the  un- 
bounded corruption.  There  is  no  more  striking  proof 
of  the  hopelessness  in  the  conditions  then  existing, 
than  that  Cicero  himself  openly  protected  Murena  who 
was  accused  of  notorious  bril>eries.  That  was  equiva- 
lent to  a  legalization  of  lawlessness. 

But  however  much  the  diminution  of  free  sentiment 
among  the  masses  may  have  made  eas}'  and  prepared 
the  downfall  of  the  republican  government,  they  greatly 
err  who  would  make  this  moral  debasement  the  sole 
or  even  the  chief  cause  for  the  apj^earance  of  mon- 
archy as  a  necessary  sequence.  That  such  a  conclu- 
sion is  too  precipitate,  ma}'  be  seen  by  a  reference  to 


ijiSTORr,  371 

republics,  ancient  and  modern,  in  which  the  cjreatest 
depravity  is  l<no\vn  to  have  held  sway.  In  Carthage, 
the  rei)ul)lican  form  of  government  went  down  only 
with  the  city  ;  and  it  was  maintained  in  \'enice  for  cen- 
turies, almost  without  any  internal  disturbance.  To 
be  sure,  the  so-called  republics  were  not  democratic  ; 
but  from  the  preceding  statements  concerning  the  con- 
duct of  the  lower  and  the  upper  ranks,  it  is  sufficiently 
plain  that  also  in  Rome,  after  the  time  of  the  Gracchi, 
the  democratic  form  had  really  failed,  if  not  foimally. 
Even  if  the  issue  of  elections  or  legislation  depended 
upon  the  masses,  they  were  subservient  almost  entirely 
to  the  aims  of  ambitious  party  chiefs.  Moreover,  we 
find  the  positions  with  which  the  real  power  was  asso- 
ciated, without  exception,  in  possession  of  the  most 
influential  families,  the  so-called  Optimates. 

The  demoralization  had  already  gone  so  far,  eighty 
years  before  our  era,  that  the  people  proper  held  only 
the  humble  offices.  The  upper  official  i)ositions  were 
passed  from  hand  to  hand  among  the  nobles,  thus 
strengthening  their  sway.  Nobility  of  rank  and  birth 
formed  an  obstinate  phalanx  against  all  those  who 
believed  they  niight  rely  upon  their  merits. 

This  aristocracy  might  have  existed  amid  the  great- 
est degradation  of  morals,  and  monarchy  could  have 
been  avoided  ;  but  internal  dissensions  were  not  to  be 
stifled,  Venice,  for  exaiuple,  existed  for  centuries 
under  an  aristocracy.  It  i,s  granted  that  this  republic 
was  not  democratic,  but  it  was  lu'vi'rtheless  a  rcpultlic. 
Had    the    conditions    slia[ted    themselves   in    Home   as 


372      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

they  (lid  Inter  in  Veniee,  the  necessity  for  u  monarchy 
would  not  have  appeared.  We  see  from  this  that  the 
great  depravit}'  and  corruption  were  not  the  only  causes 
of  the  downfall  of  the  republican  government  among 
the  Romans.  Other  causes  must  have  been  involved 
to  result  in  its  failure,  despite  its  splendid  past ;  and 
this,  indeed,  was  the  case. 

The  second  effective  lever  for  the  overturning  of  the 
government  was  the  dissimilar  composition  of  the  state 
as  a  whole,  which  made  it  impossible  under  a  repub- 
lican constitution  to  guard  against  internal  collisions 
and  disturbances.  P^rom  the  collisions  civil  wars  aiose 
as  a  natural  sequence,  and  these  could  only  end  in 
a  military  despotism.  No  authority  has  more  clearly 
stated  the  elements  of  which  the  Roman  state  was  com- 
posed, than  Guizot.  May  I  be  permitted  to  quote 
him:  — 

"  Rome,  in  its  origin,  was  a  mere  municipality,  a  corporation. 
In  Italy,  around  Rome,  we  find  nothing  but  cities, — no  coun- 
try places,  no  villages.  The  country  was  cultivated,  but  not 
peopled.  The  proprietors  dwelt  in  cities.  If  we  follow  the 
history  of  Rome,  we  find  that  she  founded  or  conquered  a  host 
of  cities.  It  was  with  cities  she  fought,  it  was  with  cities  she 
treated,  into  cities  she  sent  colonies.  In  Gaul  and  Spain  we 
meet  with  nothing  but  cities;  the  country  around  is  marsh  and 
forest.  In  the  monuments  left  us  of  ancient  Rome,  we  find 
great  roads  extending  from  city  to  city;  but  the  thousands  of 
little  by-paths  now  intersecting  every  part  of  the  country  were 
unknown.  Neitber  do  we  find  traces  of  the  immense  number 
of  churches,  castles,  country-seats,  and  villages,  which  were 
spread  all  over  the  country  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  only 
bequests  of  Rome  consist  of  vast  monuments  impressed  with 


HISTOR  Y.  373 

municipal  character,  destined  Utr  a  numerous  population 
crowded  into  a  single  spot.  A  municipal  corporation  like 
Kome  miEcht  be  able  to  conquer  tlie  world;  but  it  was  a  much 
more  difficult  task  to  moulil  it  into  one  compact  body."' 

The  Roman  state,  then,  had  arisen  from  a  munici- 
pality, for  which,  according  to  all  historical  experience, 
a  republican  form  of  government  was  certainly  most 
suitable.  In  those  times,  repuldican  mi'tluxls  of  con- 
ducting affairs  were  really  adapted  only  to  small  coun- 
tries or  municipalities;  for  means  of  communication 
were  lacking  to  provide  the  intercourse  necessaiT  to 
such  an  administration.  All  that  is  greatly  altered  in 
our  times,  where  telegra[)h  and  steam  power  unite  the 
most  widely  separated  portions  of  a  composite  nation. 
As  the  Roman  state  widened  by  conquest,  it  suited  the 
])ride  of  the  conquerors,  that  the  newly  added  portions 
should  unite  with  the  conquering  jwwer  onl}'  in  a 
relation  of  subjection.  This  is  the  most  consequential 
mistake  in  the  Roman  policy.  Piide  blinded  the  vic- 
tors ;  and  instead  of  granting  equal  rights  to  the  con- 
quered districts,  they  reduced  them  to  serfdom,  and 
took  away  from  them  for  all  future  time  the  oi)portu- 
nity  to  attain  political  equality.  It  is  plainly  to  be 
seen  that  the  condition  of  such  a  republic  was  insecure  ; 
for  the  people  of  the  con<pierctl  provinces  attempted  to 
regain  their  independence  whenever  danger  threatened 
Rome,  the  head  of  the  nation.  They  would  have  con- 
sidered it  an  honoi'  to  lake  part  with  Rome's  citizens 
in  the  destinies  of  the  state,  but  they  would  never  have 
accepted   cheerfully   a    fate    such    as   became    theirs. 


374      EDlJCAriONAL    TOPICH   OF  TIIK  BAY. 

History  offers  proofs  in  ii])iiiulanee  of  that  statement. 
After  the  disastrous  days  at  Canine,  when  Hannibal 
had  nearly  vanquished  Kome,  there  occurred  a  general 
revolt  of  the  confederates  and  dependencies.  To  be 
sure,  the  favorable  change  in  the  war  at  that  time 
returned  every  thing  to  the  old  state  of  things. 

But  the  effort  of  the  Italian  races  to  rise  fi'om  their 
dependent  condition  was  repeated  later  and  more  vigor- 
ously ;  only  with  tiie  difference,  that  they  no  longer 
wished  to  lead  a  national  life  separated  from  Rome, 
but  to  share  with  her  in  the  rule  of  the  world.  Vainly 
did  the  aristocrats  of  Rome  seek  to  evade  this  demand  : 
the  dangerous  Social  War  threatened  the  destruction 
of  Rome,  and  there  finally  remained  no  expedient  to 
arrest  the  dissolution  of  the  body  politic  except  the 
granting  of  civil  rights  to  all  Italians. 

The  extension  of  civil  equality  to  all  Italians  marks 
so  important  a  moment  in  the  vital  iiistory  of  the  Re- 
public, that  I  cannot  forbear  to  dwell  upon  it  a  little. 
They  intended  by  this  measure  to  renew  and  refresh, 
as  it  were,  the  debased  city  inhabitants,  b}'  a  healthful 
infusion  from  the  rural  population  ;  in  other  words,  to 
restore  the  middle  class.  They  intended  to  convert 
the  Roman  city  into  a  Roman  nation.  But  the}'  made 
a  mistake,  or,  rather,  half  did  what  could  be  cured  only 
by  a  radical  reform. 

In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  said  with  truth,  that  not 
even  the  slightest  im[)rovement,  so  ho[)ed  for  and 
desired,  may  be  noticed  in  the  behavior  of  the  Roman 
populace  after  the  real  incorporation  of  the  Italians, 


HISTORY.  375 

in  SI  B.C.  :  on  the  contrary,  the  popular  assemblies 
and  convontioiis  were  still  as  heretofore  a  play-ball  in 
the  hands  of  ambitious  demagogues,  greedy  for  spoils. 
That  attempt  to  fit  the  form  of  a  municipality  to  a 
whole  country  must  of  necessity  have  been  a  failure. 
Just  imagine,  how  could  the  real  middle  chiss,  plainly 
the  most  important  element  in  the  new  l>ody  of  citi- 
zens, from  whose  presence  in  the  assemblies  someliiing 
beneficial  was  to  be  hoped,  —  how  could  this  class  have 
been  able  to  make  frequent  journe3's  to  Rome,  to  the 
neglect  of  their  own  affairs,  in  order  to  make  their 
political  rights  of  value  there  by  exercising  them? 

What  immense  additions,  on  the  other  hand,  were  re- 
ceived by  the  two  extremes  of  Rome's  population,  the 
low-born  and  the  aristocratic !  The  prominent  and 
wealthiest  of  the  new  citizens  were  soon  driven  to  go 
the  same  way  with  the  aiistocratic  party ;  that  is, 
crowd  their  way  to  the  head  by  unworthy  means,  On 
the  other  hand,  we  see  needy  crowds,  averse  to  labor, 
who  now  flow  directly  towards  Kome,  like  refuse  into  a 
sewer,  to  obtain  through  bribery  and  lavish  expense 
the  means  of  a  comfortable  support,  a  life  of  idleness. 
Rome,  which  had  onh^  four  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
inhabitants  iu  70  B.C.,  had  four  million  one  hundred 
and  sixty-five  thousand  inhabitants  iu  29  B.C.,  an  in- 
crease of  more  than  nine  hundred  per  cent. 

Thus  the  exact  opposite  was  attained  of  wlnit  was 
intended  by  the  new  law.  It  was  a  new  ferment 
thiown  into  the  seething  mass  of  the  Romnn  populace. 
The  question  involuntarily  presents  itself:   Why  did  it 


37G      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC'S   OF  TIIK   DAY. 

not  occur  to  the  Romans,  wlien  civil  and  electoral 
rights  were  given  the  Italians,  to  introduce  the  rep- 
resentative system?  This  would  have  been  the  best 
way  to  ascertain  the  common  will  of  the  nation  ;  and 
they  would  have  been  able  to  dispense  with  so  manj^ 
legislative  and  popular  assemblies,  bringing  ruin  to 
the  city.  But  this  system  remained  foreign  to  all 
antiquity,  at  least  as  far  as  representation  of  all  the 
people  included  in  the  government  was  concerned. 
Nor  could  this  scarcel}'  have  been  otherwise. 

The  great  Oriental  kingdoms,  from  time  immemo- 
rial, succumbed  to  despotism,  as  they  even  to  this  day 
languish  under  it.  In  the  little  free  states  of  Greece, 
as  for  a  long  time  among  the  Romans,  the  will  of  the 
controlling  majority  of  the  citizens  in  regard  to  impor- 
tant affairs  could  be  learned  all  too  easily  by  personal 
votes  or  elections,  so  that  the  need  of  a  representative 
system  could  not  have  made  itself  felt.  It  was  not 
thought  of  later,  when  this  need  did  appear,  for  the 
reason  that  it  was  the  custom  to  consider  participa- 
tion in  legislation  and  state-management  as  a  personal 
right,  inseparable  from  the  dignity  of  a  free  citizen. 
It  certainly  presents  a  limitation  to  the  nature  of  a 
genuine  democracy,  which  is  only  to  be  found  where 
every  individual  citizen  shares,  or  may  share,  in  the 
expression  of  the  common  will.  (Tliis  thoroughly 
democratic  method  has  lately,  in  certain  places,  been 
converted  into  a  limited  representative  system  in  which 
new  bills,  legal  decisions,  and  even  appointments,  are 
subjected  to  a  popular  vote,  as  is  done  in  Switzerland.) 


iiisToiiV.  377 

Nor  must  it  l)e  forgotten  that  tlie  necessit}'  of  the 
represeuUitive  system  for  Greeks  and  Romans  appeared 
just  at  a  tinje  when  what  was  best  in  their  political 
constitution  had  outlived  its  day  ;  the  political  sense 
had  almost  perished  among  the  people. 

But  even  if  the  leading  heads  in  Rome  could  have 
made  the  resolution  to  introduce  popular  representa- 
tion, Italy  could  not  have  congratulated  itself  as  a" 
republic  on  a  stability  needful  for  its  i)lans  and  endur- 
ing peace,  without  other  comprehensive  changes.  It 
was  not  only  too  large  (too  large  for  tiie  scanty  means 
of  communication  of  that  time),  but  it  was  composed 
of  too  diverse  elements,  which  was  the  special  reason 
that  the  form  of  a  united  republic  under  the  direction 
of  a  central  power  would  have  been  more  suitable. 

A  remedy  could  have  been  found  for  the  Roman 
colossus,  against  the  increased  danger  of  factions  in  its 
interior ;  namely,  the  federal  republic.  This  kind  of 
free  states,  in  which  the  central  power  is  restricted  to 
the  management  of  such  affairs  as  must  concern  the 
whole  and  rise  from  the  whole,  while  freest  elbow- 
room  is  left  to  each  state  for  the  manngement  of  its 
own  affairs,  was  alone  able  to  encounter  the  dangers 
indicated  with  which  greater  ropulilios  must,  universally 
contend.  Not  only  have  municipal  confederations,  like 
the  ^Eolian,  the  Ionian,  the  Doric,  of  ancient  times,  or 
the  Hanseatic  League  of  the  Middle  Ages,  been  able  to 
maintain  in  tiiis  way  the  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  attain  great  prosi)erity  ;  but  there  are  exam- 
ples also  in  the  present  time  of  important  confedera- 


378      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

tions, — our  American  Union  of  States,  tlie  numerous 
republics  in  South  America,  nay,  one  even  in  the  heart 
of  Europe,  Switzerland, — which  prove  the  successful 
adaptation  of  this  form  of  government. 

The  prominent  statesmen  of  Rome  saw  the  need  of 
this  change,  but  the  possibility  of  its  execution  was 
not  obvious.  For,  while  the  above-named  republics  of 
modern  times  have  grown  up  naturally  by  the  union 
of  separate  states  which  might  have  existed  near  each 
other  without  great  rivahy,  the  opposite  plan  must 
have  been  pursued  in  the  Roman  states.  It  could  have 
been  attained  only  by  a  breaking-up  of  the  firmly 
united  national  body,  which  would  have  been  attended 
with  the  giving-up  of  privfleges  centuries  old.  But  it 
is  a  fact  of  experience,  that  a  people  will  sooner  give 
up  a  right  secured  by  law,  thau  a  privilege  sanctioned 
by  time  or  custom.  By  the  way  of  victory,  conquest, 
and  triumph,  and  in  spite  of  these,  Rome  ran  to  meet 
its  ruin.     The  state  fell  sick  from  its  own  greatness. 

The  forces  mentioned  as  contributing  to  the  over- 
throw of  the  free  government  in  Rome  are  about  all 
which  present  themselves  to  us  in  the  study  of  Roman 
history.  At  least,  no  new  ones  were  added  from  the 
year  86  B.C.  to  the  final  crash.  I  will  not  go  into  the 
highly  interesting  struggle  which  the  dying  republic 
carried  on  against  the  near  and  nearer  approaching 
monarchical  encroachment ;  and  we  will  in  conclusion 
only  ask,  How  could  Rome  so  long  ward  off  monarch}'? 
The  cause  of  it  is  twofold.  A  people  with  whose 
manner  of  life  and  thought  republican  tendencies  and 


jTisTOiiV.  379 

customs  have  been  most  closely  intwined  for  more 
than  four  ccuturies, — such  a  people  can  accustom 
themselves  only  very  slowly  to  the  sight  of  a  monarch. 
His  siicUleu  appearance  tliey  are  not  able  to  endure. 
Secondly,  it  is  natural  that  the  nobles  will  not  soon 
put  up  with  the  rule  of  one  from  their  own  number,  to 
disturb  them  in  their  i)ri'siiinptive  privileges. 

How  powerful  were  the.se  two  elements  of  opposition 
to  monarchy,  is  plainly  seen  in  the  history  of  that  man, 
of  whom  his  flatterers  said  that  the  imperial  vocation 
was  written  on  his  brow.  With  what  assiduity  did 
Ciiisar  labor  at  the  erection  of  a  loyal  throne  !  Tiie 
power  of  royalty  was  already  attained  l»y  him,  chiefly 
through  his  accepting  the  pei|)etu:d  (li(•tator^^hip.  There 
was  lacking  only  the  title  to  crown  the  laliors  of  his 
life.  But  he  was  compelled  to  atone  with  his  life  for 
this  concealed  design. 

And  yet  his  murderers  were  mistaken  who  performed 
the  justifiable  deed  under  the  guidance  of  Brutus,  if 
they  believed  that  by  the  murder  of  the  tyrant  they 
had  crushed  tyranny,  and  restored  life  to  the  free 
government.  Civil  wars  l)roke  out  afresh  with  unre- 
strained fury.  But  when  the  most  daring  republieans 
had  fallen  in  the  tierce  contests,  or  by  proscription, 
and  the  multitude  longed  for  rest,  it  was  possil)le  for 
the  crafty  victor  at  Actium,  Octavianus,  to  estal)lish 
his  imperial  power,  though  invested  with  republican 
forms. 

But  the  Roman  republic  had  been  Ikmuc  to  its  tomb, 
with  no  hope  of  a  resurrection  ! 


88U      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF   THE  DAY. 

A    GLANCE   INTO    THE'  MIDDLE   AGES. 

The  general  reader  in  this  country  knows  little  of 
the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  ;  hut  he  has  a  dim  idea 
that  tlie  historian,  when  painting  a  picture  of  mediaeval 
history,  dips  his  brush  in  gray,  and  paints  on  dark 
background.  Tliis  is  not  far  from  tlie  literal  truth. 
Though  this  period  —  from  the  destruction  of  the 
Western  Roman  Empire,  A.D.  476,  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Reforuiation,  1517,  — is  the  most  lamentable  in 
bistoiy,  it  is  by  no  means  unproductive  of  interesting 
lessons,  not  even  to  us  who  live  in  an  age  of  unprece- 
dented enlightenment,  and  miraculous  velocity  in  all 
domains  of  human  exeition.  I  shall  refrain  from 
moralizing  in  tliis  paper,  and  merely  state  facts  which 
I  trust  will  speak  for  themselves. 

After  the  chaos  which  followed  in  the  wake  of  the 
great  migration  (from  A.D.  375  till  572)  had  been 
disentangled  to  some  degree  ;  after  the  natives,  races, 
and  tribes  of  Europe  had  each  found  a  new  point  of 
centralization,  and  new  states  began  to  cr^'stallize ; 
after  the  empires  of  the  Goths  had  perished,  and  the 
Franks  under  Charlemagne  (768  to  814)  had  removed 
tlie  political  centre  of  gravitation  from  the  Tiber  to  the 
Rhine,  —  four  hundred  years  after  the  first  ai)pearance 
of  the  Huns  in  Europe,  — a  new  life  began  in  history. 

The  atrocities  of  the  wandering  swarms  and  barba- 
rous hordes  had  ceased.  Tliey  had  caused  an  almost 
incredible  devastation  in  Europe,  had  virtuall}'  wiped 
out  antique  culture,  destio3"ed  the  arts  of  peace,  and 


HISTORY.  381 

distnrbofl  all  fiicndly  relations  and  intercourse.  The 
tempest,  wliieli  for  more  than  two  htnxlred  years  liad 
ragi'd  throiigii  the  fairest  portions  of  Europe,  had  spent 
its  fury  ;  but  the  secpiences  of  li»is  unsettled  state  of 
affairs  were  terrible.  The  permanent  results  of  tlic 
great  chaos  may  be  summarized  in  a  few  words  •  a 
general  state  of  exhaustion  ;  subjugation  of  the  com- 
mon people  into  serfdom  or  total  slavery  ;  the  estab- 
lisliment  of  the  "fist-law;"  prevalence  of  barbarous 
manners  and  morals  ;  paralyzed  commerce  and  nidus- 
try  ;  almost  exclusive  [)ractice  in  the  use  of  weapons, 
and  encouragement  in  the  science  of  war. 

Numberless  were  the  iwints  of  hostile  contact  be- 
tween men  ;  friendly  relations  and  communication 
betweert  neigh')ors  were  greatly  diminished,  almost 
wliolly  disappeared.  Poverty  and  necessary  privation, 
followed  by  oblivion  of  comfort  and  fmer  enjoyments 
of  life,  made  intercourse  witli  others,  if  not  impossible, 
certainly  undesirable.  Utter  despair  had  Ijltniled  the 
nobler  feelings  of  man,  and  he  sank  to  the  level  of  the 
brute.  With  coininiseratiou  we  look  ui)on  such  dark 
scenes  of  unsociability,  want  of  culture,  and  frightful 
degeneracy. 

Nature  seemed  to  take  jwrt  in  this  lamentable  .situa- 
tion, and  revealed,  in  the  sad  shape  of  the  country, 
the  defects  of  human  society.  Even  Italy,  the  garden 
of  Europe,  had  changed  to  a  wilderness  of  forests 
and  swainps.  Wolves  lived  in  regions  where  formerly 
upon  rich,  fertile  fields,  happy  human  l)eings  were  wont 
to  promenade.     Worse  even  tiian  in  Italy  it  appears  to 


382      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  BAY. 

have  been  beyond  the  Alps.  In  eveiy  province,  large 
tracts  of  land  lay  vva.ste.  Not  only  cultivating  hands, 
na\',  onmers  of  the  land,  were  wanting.  The  rigiit  of 
occupancy  found  the  widest  and  most  daring  interpre- 
tation. And  the  land  which  was  under  cultivation  was 
more  used  for  raising  caltle  than  for  agriculture. 

The  greater  part  of  the  land  was  devoted  to  hunting, 
an  occupation  which  was  not  a  mere  amusement,  but 
a  regular  pursuit  and  a  means  of  sustenance  for  the 
nobles.  The  least  failure  of  crops,  every  devastation 
b}'  an  eneni}',  every  unexpected  i)assag"e  of  troops, 
caused  a  famine.  The  people  provided  only  for  the 
most  pressing  wants,  and  tilled  the  soil  barely  enough 
to  meet  these  wants.  Pestilence  and  famine  prevented 
a  great  increase  in  the  population,  such  as  is  witnessed 
in  our  century. 

Industry  and  commerce  had  come  almost  to  a  stand- 
still. The  common  people  in  their  poverty  made  shift 
with  the  work  of  their  unskilled  hands.  The  few  large 
land-owners  emjiloyed  serfs  as  mechanics,  who  attended 
to  furniture,  implements,  and  wearing-apparel,  in  the 
rudest  possible  manner.  There  were  but  few  cities  in 
Europe,  and  these  were  remnants  of  former  Roman 
municipalities.  These  had  degenerated  to  mere  shadows 
of  their  former  glory,  and  their  sphere  of  industrial 
activity  was  exceedingly  small. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  the  very  requisites  of  com- 
merce were  wanting ;  namely,  raw  material  and  agri- 
cultural products,  as  well  as  products  of  industry, 
skill,  and  art.      But  also  the  conditions  under  which 


HISTORY.  383 

alone  commerce  can  flourish,  and  which  are  indispens- 
able for  intereoninuniienliou  among  nations,  —  to  wit, 
seeurit}'  of  law,  internal  and  external  peace,  and  mutual 
acquaintance,  —  all  these  conditions  were  sadly  want- 
ing. At  no  time  had  commercial  intercourse  between 
the  different  parts  of  Kurope,  or  between  Europe  and 
the  countries  of  Asia,  been  wholly  wanting.  liut  dur- 
ing the  age  of  the  greatest  darkness  and  insecurity, 
when  the  knowledge  of  luxuries,  and,  indeed,  whv.'U 
man's  needs  and  desires,  were  of  the  scantiest  sort, 
and  when  roads  and  l)ridges  had  fallen  into  decay,  and 
all  the  means  of  connnunieation  were  of  the  rudest, 
this  intercourse  was  comparatively  insignilicaut. 

Aside  from  some  dim  leminiscences  of  ancient  geo- 
graphical knowledge,  kept  alive  in  convent-schools  and 
at  the  court  of  princes,  more  for  the  jnupose  of  satisfy- 
ing idle  curiosit}'  or  a  fancy  for  the  miraculous  than 
for  the  value  of  true  knowledge  and  for  the  sake  of 
its  practical  utility,  all  knowledge  of  remote  or  even 
neighlx)ring  countries  was  Utsl  during  the  anarchy  and 
barbarism  which  prevailed  in  the  earlier  periotls  of  the 
]\Iiddle  Ages.  Astonishing,  really  incredible,  are  the 
examples  of  ignorance  mentioned  —  and  often  dis- 
played—  by  authors  of  that  time.  The  provinces  of 
one  and  the  same  empire  or  kingdom  were  separated 
by  a  dense  fog  of  ignorance.  It  was  a  venturesome 
undertaking  to  travel  a  hundred  miles. 

Though  hospitality  —  generally  a  virtue  fostered 
only  in  countries  that  are  not  visited  fre(jueutly  — 
was  considered   a  duty,  and  enjoined  by  strict  laws, 


384      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

it  was  inadequate  under  the  prevailing  misery,  and 
could  not  take  the  place  of  inns  and  hosteliies  such  as 
came  into  existence  later,  when  the  population  again 
became  fluctuating,  prompted  by  commerce  and  mani- 
fold industrial  activities.  IIosi)itaHty  offered  insufli- 
cient  protection  against  the  insolent  practitioners  of 
the  "fist-law,"  and  against  the  bar})arous  hostility 
of  local  and  provincial  customs  and  laws. 

Robbery  and  theft  became  so  common  that  every 
one  lost  his  goods,  and  in  many  eases  his  life,  who 
dared  to  travel  without  strong  escort,  or  failed  to  buy 
from  the  lord  of  the  soil  the  right  of  way  through 
his  possessions.  The  threats  of  worldly  and  clerical 
potentates  against  this  prevailing  spirit  of  lawlessness 
and  violence  were  in  vain.  Robbing  inoffensive  wan- 
derers was  not  considered  a  crime.  The  "nobles" 
even  degraded  themselves  to  waylayers  :  why  should 
their  retainers  have  an3'  scruples? 

Merchants,  who  were  then  scarcely  more  than  ped- 
dlers, looked  with  dismay  at  every  toll-gate,  and  trem- 
bled when  they  l>eheld  the  rndel}'  reared  walls  of  a 
strong  castle  loom  up  upon  a  hill  or  cliff.  The  knights 
were  all  robbers,  sitting  on  high  in  their  fortresses, 
and  swooping  down  like  hawks  on  the  fords,  on  tt»e 
highways,  on  the  moorlands,  on  the  forests,  on  the  little 
settlements  below  them.  Even  the  judges  were  rob- 
bers, thieves,  and  receivers  of  stolen  goods.  King 
Chnrles  the  Bald  found  it  necessar}'  to  make  his  counts 
and  judges  swear  solemnly  that  they  would  neither  be 
thieves,  nor  receive  stolen  goods. 


uisTonv.  3H5 

When  the  traveller  had  succeeded  in  escaping;  the 
robbers,  he  was  made  the  prey  of  barbarous  law. 
Humanity  and  holy  right  cried  in  vain  for  syrni)athy 
with  the  shipwrecked.  The  captured  cargo  at  tiie 
strand  —  yea,  even  the  wrecked  persons  themselves  — 
were  claimed  by  the  owners  of  the  strand.  In  many 
countries  it  was  permitted,  by  a  law  wliich  had  grown 
out  of  long  custom,  to  seize  the  contents  of  a  wagon 
that  had  been  broken  on  the  road  by  accident;  and  a 
sliip  thai  had  struck  bottom  on  the  livei-  was  often 
legally  claimed  by  tiie  lords  of  the  abutting  land. 

Any  one  who  staid  "  a  year  and  a  day  "  at  the  same 
place  became  the  serf  of  the  lord  of  the  place.  The 
latter  inherited  the  chattels  of  a  traveller  who  died  ou 
his  soil.  In  some  countries  the  stranger  stood  com- 
pletely outside  of  law  :  he  could  be  killed  with  impu- 
nity. Inhal)itants  of  one  and  the  same  state  were 
considered  strangers  if  they  travelled  to  a  neighbor- 
ing province.  Familiarity  with  the  language  was  of 
no  avail. 

During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne's  weak  successors, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  of  France  were  driven 
into  the  interior  l)y  tlie  Northmen,  who  devastated 
their  houses  and  land.  Instead  of  being  supported 
and  cared  for  by  the  people  living  inland,  these  fugi- 
tives were  considered  welcome  bo<jty,  and  pressed  into 
slave-service.     Ilorribilo  dicta  ! 

Such  was  life  during  the  Dark  Ages,  before  the 
cities  began  to  establish  law  and  order,  exercise  self- 
government,  and  guarantee  protection  (jf  proiierly.      It 


386      EDUCATIONAL    TOPIC'S   OF  THE   DAY'. 

is  easily  seen  that  the  never-dyinf^j  spirit  of  war  and 
wild  anarchy  made  gentle  manners  impossible.  The 
"nobles"  in  their  seehnled  castles  on  the  monntains 
gave  themselves  up  to  coarse  debauchery  ;  the  common 
people,  under  the  yoke  of  serfdom,  sank  into  l)rutality, 
or  into  a  mere  cowardly,  joyless  vegetating.  It  was 
but  natural  that  the  absolute  want  of  artistic  taste  and 
scientific  knowledge  should  prevent  a  better  enjoyment 
of  life,  and  that  moral  feelings  and  intellectual  powers 
which  were  abused  and  trampled  u[)ou  by  the  pride 
of  the  nobles  and  an  overbeaiing  priesthood  should 
develop  hideous  extuberauces  and  monstrous  social 
deformities. 

However,  even  during  these  centuries  of  the  coarsest 
brutality,  precious  virtues  were  found,  —  virtues  which 
are  rare  in  our  age  of  superfine  civilization.  Thus  we 
see  among  the  better  people  of  all  sti'ata  of  society 
the  virtue  of  domesticity  developed,  especially  in  the 
gentler  sex,  —  hospitality,  frugality,  unassuming  integ- 
rity, and  self-denying  charity.  In  many  gratifying 
and  touching  examples  of  such  virtues,  evidence  is 
found,  that,  Jioivever  depraved  tJie  age,  there  always 
remains  a  solidified  residue  of  ethical  culture  which  no 
vicissitudes  can  shake.  The  manifold  afflictions  and 
the  never-ceasing  storm  in  the  political  world  led  the 
people  to  religious  contemplation ;  and  from  their 
simpUcit}'  in  matters  of  faith  and  devout  trust  arose 
consolations,  noble  blossoms  of  life,  and  a  moral 
strength  for  which  the  proudest  philosophy  may  well 
have  envied  the  lowliest  of  toilers. 


Ul  STORY.  387 

INVENTrOXS   DURING    rilE   MIDDLE   AGES. 

It  is  lii<ilily  intorestinsz:,  and  no  k'ss  instructive,  to 
look  l)aek  into  iiistoiy,  and  ruminate  iu  far-distant  cen- 
tnries.  to  lind  the  l)eginnings  of  culture  as  represented 
by  inventions  of  various  kinds.  The  great  inveutiofts 
of  our  age  dwindle  down  somewhat  when  compared 
with  inventions  that  gave  rise  to  tlicni.  Who  ever 
would  have  thought  of  a  type-writer  if  Outenburg  had 
not  thought  of  separating  the  letters  of  the  wooden 
page  of  a  Psalter?  Who  would  have  thought  of  a 
knitting-machine,  if  the  needles  in  the  hands  of  dili- 
gent women  had  not  furnished  generations  with  socks 
and  stockings?     And  so  on  ad  injinitum. 

P^ver}'  inventor  stands  on  the  shoulders  of  others 
who  have  preceded  him.  A  few  statements  as  to  the 
age  of  certain  inventions  and  discoveries  may  give  us 
a  better  idea  of  their  value,  and  will  certainly  increase 
our  appreciation  of  the  wonderful  velocity  with  which 
the  luiinan  intellect  has  grown  in  civilized  countries. 

From  time  immemorial  the  Germanic  tril)es  (which 
term  inchules  also  the  Anglo-Saxons)  knew  how  to 
spin  and  weave  flax,  but  they  did  not  wear  shirts  untd 
the  seventh  century  after  Christ;  and  not  until  the 
fourteenth  century  had  the  shirt  become  a  garment 
worn  by  all. 

Woollen  garments  were  in  use  at  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne (7GS-814).  Cotton  was  too  expensive,  and 
cnnld  not  l»e  used  extensively;  that  is,  not  until  Vasco 
da  Gama  had  discovered  the  sea  route  to  India.     Tlio 


388      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE  DAY. 

culture  of  the  silkworm  vv.as  known  in  Greece  at  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Justinian  (Tjoo).  The  silkworm 
was  brought  to  Spain  by  the  Moors  (HOO),  and  in 
France  it  was  introduced  in  the  wake  of  the  first 
crusades.  ' 

During  the  eleventh  century  the  Arabs  brought  tlie 
art  of  making  paper  of  cotton  to  Spain,  and  from  there 
it  rapidly  spread  over  Europe.  Linen  paper  was  not 
known  before  the  fourteentli  century,  and  tlie  Holland- 
ers were  the  first  to  manufacture  it  and  extensively 
trade  with  it. 

Goose-quills  have  been  in  use  ever  since  the  sixth 
centur}'.  The  art  of  knitting  was,  according  to  the 
best  authorities,  invented  in  North  Germany  (about 
1500).  Ribbon-makers  were  numerous  in  Germany 
during  the  tliirtccnth,  and  button-workers  (who,  how- 
ever, worked  exclusively  iu  metal)  in  the  fourteenth, 
century. 

Glass,  which  was  known  to  the  ancients,  was  not 
used  for  window-panes  until  some  time  in  the  thirteenth 
centur}',  and  in  churches  it  was  used  sooner  than  in 
dwellings.  During  the  fifteenth  centur}'  it  aroused  a 
great  deal  of  wonder  to  find  houses  provided  v/ith  glass 
windows.  Toward  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  the 
first  glass  mirrors  were  made,  but  metallic  mirrors 
predominated. 

Up  to  the  fourteenth  century  open  fireplaces  were  iu 
use  all  over  Central  Europe  ;  after  that  stoves  came  in 
use,  but  chimneys  were  not  built  until  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 


HISTORY.  389 

Wooden  spoons  and  plates  in  form  of  dishes  were 
used  l)y  the  ancient  Germans  ;  knives  came  in  use  in 
the  thii-teenth,  while  folks  and  nielallic  spoons  did  not 
make  their  api)eaianee  until  the  sixteenth  centuiy. 

Their  food  was  taken  by  all  paitieii)ants  of  the  meal 
from  the  same  bowl.  Pots  were  made  very  early  ;  hut 
they  were  made  without  enamel,  as  is  seen  from  the 
urns  excavated  here  and  there.  Oil-lamps  were  us>ed 
for  lighting  the  rooms.  Salt  was  found  and  used  very 
early.  Barley  and  oats  were  brewed  into  mead,  which 
was  subsequently  imi)roved  during  the  ninth  century  by 
the  use  of  hops.  Wine  was  known  in  the  most  ancient 
times.  Sugar  was  obtained  from  Syria.  Tea,  coffee, 
chocolate,  as  well  as  tobacco,  were  unknown  duiing  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Of  the  different  kinds  of  grain  now  known,  oid}' 
barley  and  oats  were  raised  ;  for  the  other  kinds,  the 
climate  seems  to  have  been  too  severe.  The  plough 
was  of  rude  construction,  and  was  drawn  by  oxen. 
During  the  sixth  century  rye  was  l)rought  to  Germany 
by  Sla\  ic  tribes,  while  wheat  was  introduced  by  French- 
men who  biought  it  from  Jtaly.  Buckwheat  came  by 
way  of  Cireece  into  Central  Kun^pe,  toward  the  einl 
of  the  crusades  (1291).  In  the  most  ancient  times 
the  i)eople  freed  the  wheat  fiom  the  ear  by  stei)ping 
on  and  riding  over  it ;  the  flail  was  introduced  by  the 
Romans. 

Mining  also  came  through  the  Romans,  and  even  in 
Charlemagne's  time  metals  were  thus  ol)tained.  The 
Franks  built  water-mills  at  .j(JU   after  Christ  :    liefore 


390      FDVCATIONAL    TOI'K'S   OF   THE   DAY. 

that  the  peo[)le  had  only  hand  and  tread  mills.  "Wind- 
mills did  not  come  into  use  until  the  tenth,  and  saw- 
mills in  the  fourteenth  century.  At  about  the  same 
time,  the  pulling  of  wire  was  invented  by  a  Nuremberg 
citizen.  Of  course  this  led  to  the  invention  of  needles 
and  pins.  Up  to  the  ninth  century,  only  sun-dials. 
water  and  sand  clocks,  were  known.  The  tirst  wheel- 
clocks  were  made  in  Italy.  Padua  is  said  to  have  had 
the  first  tower-clock  in  1344  ;  and  at  about  1500  a 
Nuremberg  citizen  invented  the  watches  known  from 
their  forms  as  Nuremberg  eggs. 

Under  the  influence  of  foreign  commerce,  manufac- 
tories of  various  kinds  originated  in  Italian  cities. 
Milan  fuinished  the  best  and  most  costly  weapons  and 
armors  ;  Venice,  the  most  elegant  jewelry  and  articles 
of  luxury  ;  Geuoa  and  Bologna,  the  richest  silk  stuffs, 
satin,  velvet,  and  embroideries.  Many  inventions  of 
lasting  value  were  made  by  these  thrift}'  people. 
Spino  of  Piso  invented  a  kind  of  magnifying  lenses, 
the  first  spectacles  ever  made.  In  Fainza  the  process 
of  pottery  was  invented,  which  is  to  this  da}'  unsur- 
passed (our  so-called  faience).  At  Venice  the  manu- 
facture of  glass  and  mirrors  became  famous,  and  in 
this  same  city  it  was  where  the  first  clock  with  a 
pendulum  was  made. 

The  in.vention  of  making  paper  from  rags  was  made 
in  Padua,  and  here  it  was  where  the  first  tallow  candle 
was  dipped.  Bells  were  cast  in  Italy  at  about  400, 
but  not  until  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  were  they 
found  in  ueueral  use  in  cloisters  and  churches.     In  the 


iiT.^Tonv.  391 

twelfth  century  the  most  noted  bell-fonnrleries  were 
found  ill  Nuremberg  and  Augsburg.  Cliarlcmague 
procured  a  wind-organ  in  Constantinople,  and  had  it 
put  up  in  Aix-la-Chapelle ;  thereui)on  the  building  of 
organs  became  a  favorite  industry  in  Central  Europe. 
The  most  ancient  organs  ha^i  onl}-  ten  keys,  each 
between  four  and  six  inches  wide  ;  those  keys  had  to 
be  knocked  down  with  the  fist.  Our  present  organs 
with  their  complicated  construction  are  inventions  of 
very  recent  time. 

The  art  of  sculpture  was  introduced  into  Germany 
toward  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  painters  were 
known  at  the  time  of  Henry  the  First.  Engraving  on 
copper  was  invented  during  the  fifteenth  century. 
Drug-stores  were  opened  by  Arabs  who  came  by  way 
of  Spain,  and  in  the  thirteenth  centniy  Augsburg  had 
the  first  drug-store  ;  but  tiie  druggists  were  grocers' 
and  dealers  in  spices  and  comfibs.  Physicians,  as  the 
word  is  now  applied,  were  not  known  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  only  ignorant  (piacks.  The  medical  scii'uce 
took  an  upward  start  in  consequence  of  tln'  foundation 
of  univereities  and  scientific  schools. 

NATURAL   CALLING,   OR  NOT? 

Is  every  person  predestined  for  a  calling?  Approach 
the  question  regardless  of  preconceived  notiftns.  and 
you  will  have  to  consider  that  every  one  has  iiis  own 
peculiar  face,  his  own  form  ;  each  of  his  limbs  or  h;mds 
is  p'MMilinrly  shiipcil.  ami  cannot  lie  (bipliratnl  l)v  tlint 
of  an}'  otlici'  liiitiiaii    liciiig.      His  senses  and   faculties 


392      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

are  in  their  combination  so  wonderfully  and  peculiarly 
arranged,  that  there  may  perhaps  be  found  a  similar- 
ity, but  never  an  exact  duplicate.  This  proves,  if  any 
thing,  that  no  two  men  can  be  exactly  alike  in  faculties, 
qualifications,  tendencies,  and  accom{)lishments,  so  as 
t6  feel  at  any  time,  and  under  all  circumstances, 
exactly  the  same  impulse  for  action  ;  every  one  will 
move  in  a  direction  differing  from  that  of  all  other 
men.  Evidently,  then,  the  peculiar  mixture  of  which 
every  individual  consists  tends  towards  confirming  the 
belief  \\ivlX,  every  one  has  a  calling;  that  is,  every  pei'son 
must  be  specially  well  fitted  for  one  kind  of  work,  and 
for  no  other  as  well. 

That  would  seem  to  settle  the  question,  but  it  does 
so  only  apparently.  The  child  is  a  "•  soft  and  yield- 
ing being;"  plant-like,  he  accommodates  himself  to 
influences  which  play  upon  him.  His  aptitudes  grow 
exuberantly  on  the  one  side,  and  become  cripi>led  on 
the  other,  as  friendly  or  hostile  influences  prevail.  A 
symmetrically  shaped  plant  will  become  twisted  and 
distorted  if  placed  against  a  wall ;  it  depends  upon 
the  treatment  of  the  gardener  whether  a  tree  will  spend 
its  energy  in  producing  leaves  or  fruit.  A  boy  of  six 
years  may  have  a  talent  for  art ;  his  sense  of  form  and 
color  may  be  very  pronounced  :  yet  after  five  years  he 
may  be  found  to  have  apparently  lost  that  faculty,  and 
developed  in  a  direction  which  makes  the  observer 
prophesy  that  the  boy  will  become  a  great  lawyer. 
And  again,  after  some  years,  he  may  be  found  to  have 
developed  great   skill   in    manual   occupation,  having 


UISTORY.  393 

apparently  pressed  into  the  background  liis  liking  for 
art  and  literature. 

These  arc  no  hypothetic  cases :  ever}-  observant 
educator  will  have  come  to  the  conclusion,  ere  this, 
that  it  is  utterly  unfruitful  and  perilous  to  fore-ordain 
a  pupil's  future.  This  l)eing  the  case,  it  seems  to  me 
wise  to  follow  the  advice  of  eminent  men  :  to  wit, 
develop  harmoniously  ail  the  talents  liiat  manifest 
themselves  in  the  child,  and  leave  the  choice  of  occu- 
pation or  calling  to  the  developed  and  ripe  judgment 
of  the  youth.  Do  not  make  this  choice  irrevocable. 
Give  every  one  the  greatest  possible  freedom  for 
changing  his  profession,  or  occupation,  or  calling  (or 
give  it  whatever  name  you  will),  if  he  comes  to  the 
conclusion  tliat  lie  missed  it  in  his  first  choice. 

A  human  being  who  has  had  the  chance  and  mani- 
fold opportunities  for  testing  ids  natural  gifts,  and  is 
permitted  to  exeit  himself  in  many  directions,  will 
certainly  find  his  natural  calling,  and  achieve  great 
success.  Let  there  be  no  arbitrary  rules,  no  guild 
regulations;  but  let  us  maintain  that  liberty  of  action 
which  has  made  this  nation  what  it  is.  the  greatest, 
noblest,  most  talented,  most  energetic,  most  success- 
fid,  and  therefore  happie&t,  nation  ou  the  face  of  the 
earth. 


304      EDUCAriONAL    TOPICS   OF  TIIK  DAY. 


A    BIRD'S-EYE    VIEW  OF  MODERN  HISTORY. 

(Characteristics  of  the  now  era:  extension  of  man's  horizon  by 
grear  discoveries;  shal{in.<;  of  pai>ai-y  and  hicrarctiy  li.v  the  liefor- 
ination;  changes  in  tlie  art  of  warfare;  th)\vnfall  of  feudalism, 
and  development  of  alisoiute  monarcliies;  changed  attitude  of 
the  states  toward  each  otinn-;  balance  of  power;  |)olitical  and 
social  revolutions.     Four  periods  of  modern  history.) 

The  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  marked  by  a 
general  revolution  all  over  the  then  known  world. 
Great  and  powerful  political  structures  were  violently 
overthrown  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  after 
Christ.  The  Roman  Empire,  then  the  centre  of  gravi- 
tation of  political  life  in  P^urope,  was  shattered ;  and 
amid  and  upon  its  ruins,  Germanic  tribes  built  new 
states.  The  limits  of  ancient  history,  therefore,  are 
sharply  defined.  It  appears  that  the  beginning  of 
modern  history  is  not  inaugurated  by  such  violent 
changes.  For,  aside  from  the  destruction  of  the 
Greek  Empire  by  the  Turks  (1453),  the  European 
nations  remain  tlie  same,  and  the  boundaries  of  their 
possessions  remain  essentially  unchanged.  Yet,  at  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  so  many  new  events  and 
important  changes  take  place,  that  that  centur}'  may 
justly  be  regarded  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages.  All 
political  life,  all  relations  among  men,  have  since  then 
assumed  so  different  a  character,  that  it  seems  justifi- 
able to  give  the  time  that  elapsed  since  then  the  cap- 
tion of  a  grand  division  of  history.  In  contradistinc- 
tion to  ancient  history,  we  call  it  modern  history. 

First,  the  historical  stage  is  enlarged  almost  im- 
measurably b}'  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  and  Vasco 


ifisroiiv.  395 

di  Gama.  "While  formerly  the  eomitries  of  the  Medi- 
terranean were  the  only  liistorieal  ground  known,  the 
whole  faee  of  the  earth  now  eonies  into  consitleration. 
"With  the  horizon  of  vision,  nie  scope  of  thought,  of 
power,  of  iuflnenee  and  action,  is  widened  ininiensely. 
By  means  of  commerce  and  the  establishment  of  colo- 
nies, Europe  gains  a  predominant  influence  over  all 
other  continents,  and  in  return  is  made  to  feel  the 
iuevitabls  effects  of  contact  with  otheis.  Its  own 
conditions  change  perceptibly. 

Then  the  great  strnclure  of  the  Roman  Church  suf- 
fers a  remarkable  shock  and  subsequent  changes,  by 
means  of  the  Reformation  suggested  by  Martin  Lutlier, 
whereby  papacy  and  hierarchy  fall  from  the  height  to 
which  they  had  been  raised  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
This  is  not  accomplished  by  one  man,  nor  in  one  stroke, 
but  b}'  a  most  remarkable  series  of  contests  in  litera- 
ture and' on  the  battle-field.  And  though  the  most 
powerful  princes  and  the  greatest  generals  during  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  such  as  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  King  Philip  IE,  Duke  All>a,  Wallenstein, 
and  Tilly,  enter  the  arena  in  defence  of  papacy  ;  and 
though,  in  defence  of  the  old  Church,  the  most  destruc- 
tive war  known  in  all  history,  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
is  fought,  —  nevertheless  the  Church  reformation  can- 
not be  crushed,  but  nuikes  great  progress,  especially  in 
Northern  Europe.  In  consetpuMice  of  direct  ap[)eal  to 
the  Scriptures,  freedom  of  faith  and  thought  and  in- 
vestigation ill  all  domains  of  human  exertion  is  estab- 
lished, and  gains  a  l\)oth<)ld  evervwhere.     Tiujugli  the 


396      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF  THE   DAY. 

Roiiiiin  Church  docs  not  siiccuin!>,  it  loses  entire  nations 
from  its  grasp,  and  is  obliged  to  abandon  its  strict 
adherence  to  mediaeval  principles  and  practices.  In 
short,  the  Church  is,  though  against  its  will,  modern- 
ized like  every  thing  else.  Perhaps  no  other  agency 
was  more  effectual  in  overthrowing  papal  authority 
than  the  direct  appeal  to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which 
were  made  accessible  by  the  invention  of  the  art  of 
printing.  If  there  were  no  other  great  events  to  mark 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  this  invention  alone  would 
be  sufficient. 

Also  in  the  organism  of  the  states  we  notice  remark- 
able changes.  When  during  the  Middle  Ages  the 
feudal  system  was  in  full  bloom,  there  were  literally 
only  two  classes  which  enjoyed  civil  rights  :  the  clergy 
and  the  nobility.  Under  protection  of  the  Church  there 
arose  by  degrees  political  structures  which  claimed  rec- 
ognition. And  the  remnants  of  ancient  Roman  munici- 
palities were  gathered  up  ;  the  former  communities  were 
rejuvenated,  and  gained  rights  and  privileges  which 
made  them  more  or  less  independent  of  feudal  lords. 
They  soon  felt  themselves  strong  enough  to  claim  rec- 
ognition as  a  "third  estate,"  that  is,  as  a  third  com- 
ponent part  of  the  state.  Kings  and  emperors  sought 
assistance  from  the  cities  against  the  arrogance  of 
petty  princes  and  crown-vassals,  and  were  willing  to 
grant  liberties  and  privileges  to  the  communities,  which 
thus  became  the  centres  of  civil  liberty  and  virtue. 
In  consequence  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  cities, 
the  feudal  system  was  shaken  in  its  foundation  ;  and 


HI  STORY.  397 

toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  may  be  said 
to  have  met  its  doom. 

Another  very  vital  change  is  wrought  by  the  new  art 
of  warfare,  which  came  into  general  use  toward  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  consequence  of  the  re- 
invention of  gunpowder.  Ever  since  the  thirteenth 
centur}',  war  was  not  in  every  case  carried  on  with  the 
assistance  of  feudal  vassals,  but  in  many  cases  with 
hired  troops.  This  was  done  especially  by  the  English 
kings  on  French  soil.  Tlie  victories  won  by  the  Swiss 
peasants  over  the  mailed  knights  of  Austria  and  Bur- 
gundy, and  the  panic  that  went  before  the  foot-soldiers 
of  the  Turks  (the  so-called  Janitscbars),  led  to  the  con- 
viction that  war  could  not  be  carried  on  except  with 
great  masses  of  infantry.  But  the  nobles  declined  to 
serve  as  foot-soldiers  with  gun  in  hand.  They  preferred 
to  fight  on  horseback  with  swoid  in  hand.  They  left 
the  gun  in  the  hands  of  hired  troops,  reserving  for 
themselves  the  positions  of  officers  and  commanders. 

However,  with  tlie  decline  of  the  feudal  system, 
whicii  was  based  upon  birthright,  the  states  of  Europe 
did  not  at  once  receive  a  constitution  which  secured 
general  liberty,  that  is,  protection  to  evei'y  one 
against  arbitrary  action  of  others.  What  the  "  upper 
classes"  tluis  lost,  did  not  profit  the  "lower,"  be- 
cause kings  and  princes,  who  formerly  had  but  very 
liniited  power  over  their  crown-vassals,  now  grew 
strong  everywhere,  and  became  absolute.  This  transit 
through  al)S<)lulism  was  necessaiy,  in  oider  to  enable 
the  lower  enslaved  classes  to  enjoy  the    blessings  of 


398      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF   THE   DAY. 

some  lil)erty  and  almost  entire  civil  eqiiulit}'.  Before 
the  majesty  of  the  throne,  all  subjects  became  equal ; 
and  it  could  not  serve  the  absolute  prince  to  give  one 
class  of  his  subjects  great  advantages  over  others. 

The  transition  from  the  feudal  system  to  absolute 
monarchy  took  place  in  different  ways.  In  some 
countries,  as  in  luigland  and  Spain,  the  sovereign 
succeeded  in  breaking  the  power  of  his  vassals  so  well, 
that  they  lost,  one  after  another,  their  independence, 
and  remained  only  a  power  in  the  state,  as  a  class  ; 
in  other  countries,  notably  in  France,  the  king  united 
in  more  peaceful  manner  the  power  of  his  vassals  with 
his  own  ;  and  still  in  others,  in  Germany  and  Italy, 
the  vassals  succeeded  in  freeing  themselves  from  their 
duties  as  vassals,  and  in  becoming  independent  sove- 
reigns. Only  very  recently  the  different  i)rincipalitieo 
in  Italy  were  unified  as  one  state  ;  and  in  Germany 
there  are  still  some  twenty  odd  states,  though  under 
the  common  leadership  of  Prussia. 

Lastly,  the  attitude  of  the  states  toward  each  other 
became  vastly  different  from  what  it  had  been.  Dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages,  the  nations  of  the  Christian 
Germanic  world  existed  in  entire  isolation  from  one 
another.  No  nation  troubled  itself  much  about  the 
affairs  of  the  neighboring  state.  Only  the  Pope  had 
ambassadors  at  the  capitals  of  the  different  European 
countries  ;  and  he  mediated,  interceded,  or  interfered, 
when  occasion  demanded  it.  When,  in  consequence 
of  the  Church  reformation,  the  power  of  the  Pope  van- 
ished in  entire  nations  of  the  North,  and  when  inter- 


II I  STORY.  399 

communication  among  tlie  different  countries  increased 
ra[)idly,  the  Church  could  not  act  in  tliat  capacity  any 
longer.  Just  as  little  could  the  waning  power  of  the 
German  emperor  estal)lish  a  central  power,  or  act  as 
court  of  arhitraliou,  among  the  Christian  nations  of 
EuroiJC.  Still  the  one  thought,  that  all  the  Christian 
states,  nationally  independent  of  each  other  as  they 
were,  should  form  a  unit  as  against  the  Turks,  be- 
came predominant.  And  from  this  thought  is  derived 
the  other  consequential  idea,  that  all  the  states  of 
Europe  are  by  rights  one  family,  a  system  of  states. 
But  since  they  are,  and  always  were,  of  different 
sizes  and  degree  of  power,  and  France  aud  Austria 
were  the  mightiest,  it  was  thought  that  the  equilibrium 
of  power  could  best  be  preserved  if  the  smaller  states 
would  hold  the  balance  of  power.  This  Ijalauce  of 
power  was  often  thrown  into  the  scale  of  the  one  or 
the  other,  as  the  occasion  seemed  to  suggest ;  that  is, 
as  it  became  apparent  that  either  the  one  or  the  other 
empire  was  about  to  become  the  universal  monarchy  in 
pAiropc.  A  natural  sequence  of  this  state  of  affairs  was 
the  change  of  mercenary  troops  into  standing  armies. 
These  soon  l)i.came  oppressive  burdens  to  the  peo[)le  ; 
as,  for  instance,  when  under  Louis  XIV.  the  French 
army,  which  had  only  sixteen  thousand  men  at  the  time 
of  Ileury  IV.,  was  increased  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  men.  There  were  very  important  sequences 
to  this  vital  change.  In  order  to  defray  the  expenses 
caused  by  the  maintenance  of  large  armies,  new 
sources  of  national  wealLli  had  to  be  opened  ;  and  all 


400      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

classes  of  society  were  now  called  upon,  by  legislation, 
to  contribute,  in  form  of  taxes,  to  the  income  of  the 
state. 

The  enlisting  of  strong  standing  armies  became  so 
difficult  in  the  course  of  time,  that  the  rulei's  had  to 
resort  to  national  armies  drafted  from  the  people, 
legardless  of  wealth  or  social  position  of  the  individual. 

The  enormous  increase  of  duties  and  taxes  finally 
awakened  the  desire  of  the  lower  classes,  hitherto  ex- 
cluded from  the  government,  to  take  part  in  it.  They 
did  not  care  to  contribute  funds  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  state,  if  they  could  not  have  a  voice  upon  the 
manner  of  distribution  of  the  funds.  The  provisions 
of  the  English  constitution  certainly  acted  as  a  stimu- 
lus upon  the  Continent.  But  the  rulers  and  privileged 
classes  were  unwilling  to  grant  to  the  common  people 
the  desired  participation  in  the  government.  This 
refusal  of  just  demands  made  the  people  more  im- 
petuous ;  and  at  last  bloody  revolutions  and  violent 
disturbances  followed,  which  resulted  in  the  common- 
ers' victory  over  the  privileged  classes. 

"While  thus,  politically,  the  civilized  world  has  come 
to  a  final  solution,  namely,  to  a  form  of  government 
which  is  either  the  representative  republic  or  the  next 
best  thing  to  it,  a  constitutional  monarch}' ;  it  is,  as 
regards  social  relations,  in  the  midst  of  powerful  and 
conflicting  currents  caused  by  wonderful  inventions, 
notably  b}-  the  application  of  steam-power  and  elec- 
tricit}',  inventions  which  may  be  said  to  be  still  in 
their  infancy. 


HISTORY.  401 

Four  periods  are  to  be  distiuguislied  in  niodeiii 
histor}'. 

The  first  i)criod  extends  from  the  hogiiiuing  of  the 
Reformation,  l,")!?,  to  tlie  conchision  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  1648.  Li  this  ix'riod,  religion  is  the 
centre  of  all  political  commotion. 

The  second  period  extends  from  the  Westphalian 
Peace,  10-18,  to  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolu- 
ti<m,  1789.  In  this  period  religion,  as  a  political  fac- 
tor, is  replaced  by  purely  worldly  interests.  France 
gains  for  a  short  time  supremacy  over  the  Continent ; 
England  becomes  the  ruler  of  the  sea  ;  Sweden  recedes 
before  advancing  Russia;  Prussia  is  elevated,  by  the 
genius  of  Fredi'rick  the  C^reat,  to  a  Euiopean  great 
power ;  and  the  English  colonies  in  North  America 
secure  their  independence,  and  propagate  the  idea  of 
republiciinism. 

The  third  period  extends  from  the  beginning  of  the 
French  Revolution,  1789,  to  the  second  Parisian 
peace,  1815.  This  is  the  time  in  which  ancient  histor- 
ical right  is  fought  violently ;  in  whicii  the  people 
wiestle  with  their  oppressors,  and  endeavor  to  replace 
historical  l)y  natiual  right.  Tiie  French  Revoluticm 
convulses  all  Kui()i)ean  states,  but  does  not  succeed  in 
estal)lisliing  universal  freedom.  It  elevates  Napoleon, 
who  temi)orarily  subduCs  Furopi'  under  an  unendurable 
military  despotism. 

Tlic  fourtii  period  extends  from  the  second  Parisian 
peace,  LSI  j,  to  the  close  of  the  recent  Fiauco-(ili'rman 
war,    1871.      Its   character   is   a   continual    wrestling 


402      EDUCATIONAL    TOl'ICS   OF  TlIK   DAY. 

between  absolutism  and  constitutionalism,  between 
conservatism  and  liberalism.  As  soon  as  the  people 
had  gained  new  strength  after  the  exhaustive  Napo- 
leonic wars,  the  desire  for  more  liberal  political  insti- 
tutions were  awakened  anew.  France  again  took  the 
lead.  The  July  revolution  in  1830,  the  Februar}- 
revolution  in  1848,  caused  the  granting  of  constitu- 
tional form  of  government  in  all  countries  in  Europe, 
except  in  Russia  and  Turkey.  And  the  liberation  of 
slaves  in  America,  of  serfs  in  Russia,  is  to  be  classed 
among  the  manifestations  of  this  universal  demand 
for  liberty.  Aside  from  this  popular  demand,  there 
is  another  most  powerful  current,  which  is  drifting 
toward  consolidation  and  unification  of  nations.  We 
notice  its  manifestations  in  Italy,  1S59  ;  in  Germany, 
1870;  in  Ireland,  and  on  the  Balkan  peninsula:  but 
they  have  occurred  so  recently,  that  a  mere  mention 
must  suffice. 

WHAT  IS   NIHILISM? 

Nihilism  is  a  term  very  hard  to  define.  If  yon  put 
the  question  to  a  Russian,  you  will  scarceh'  obtain  a 
precise  answer,  certainly  not  a  satisfactory  one.  His 
answer  will  be  in  accordance  with  his  social  position 
and  his  mode  of  thinking.  So  the  Russian  general  will 
say,  "  A  Nihilist''  Well,  he  is  a  fellow  w^ho  does  not 
respect  the  Lord  on  higli,  not  even  his  emperor."  Old 
men,  who  have  their  origin  in  a  time  in  which  man's 
thoughts  and  actions  moved  in  firmly  established 
grooves,  will  say,  "A  Nihilist?     Why,  he  is  a  man 


HI  STORY.  403 

without  priiifiplos."  If  you  nsk  a  young  man.  per- 
haps a  student,  he  will  answer,  "  X  Nihilist":'  Ah  I  he 
IS  the  bearer  of  Russia's  future."  Most  j)eopli!  shni;^ 
their  shoulders,  and  answer  you,  "  A  Nihilist?  Well, 
you  see,  that  is  an  aitniliilist." 

It  is  a  thankless  task  to  force  an  idea  like  this  into 
the  Procrustes  bed  of  a  definition.  We  all  think,  un- 
doubtedly, that  we  have  a  clear  comprehension  of  the 
American  "-  go-ahead-ness,"  yet  we  should  need  a  good 
many  words  if  we  were  called  upon  to  explain  the 
term.  If  it  manifests  itself  in  the  way  it  was  mani- 
fested in  Cmcmnati  during  the  late  flood,  we  may  think 
it  a  virtue.  Again,  if  it  manifests  itself  in  careless- 
ness in  the  erection  of  bridges  and  other  structures 
which  show  dilapidation  before  they  are  completed, 
that  very  go-ahead-ness  may  be  termed  a  crime. 

There  is  a  word  in  the  Russir.n  language  used  quite 
freipiently.  IL  is  Nitschewo:  Never  mind.  Don't  care  ! 
You  can  hear  it  in  all  classes  of  society,  and  at  every 
occasion.  Every  thing  the  Ru.ssian  thinks,  feels,  and 
does  seems  saturated  with  this  NUscheivo.  A  criminal 
carelessness  pervades  every  thing  in  Russia.  Now, 
this  connection  l>etweeu  a  national  i)hiase,  and  a  mode 
of  thought  which  seems  to  be  national  also,  is  no 
accidental  couneetiou.  An  autocratic  government  like 
that  of  Russia  seems  to  nurture  a  carele.>^sness  as  we 
tiud  it  there  among  all  classes  of  society.  There  is  no 
pro[)er  field  of  a(ti\ity  for  the  Russian  youth,  exce|it 
the  career  ol'  :in  ollict,'- holder ;  and  that  does  not  alTord 
satisfaction,  either  foi-  ambition  or  for  other  hinli  and 


404      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS    OF  THE   DAY. 

noble  motives.  They  huve  no  aicii;i  in  which  tlicy 
niiglit  measure  and  develoi)  their  talents. 

Our  country  will  never  i)ermit  the  growth  of  a  disease 
like  Nihilism,  because  the  inborn  rights  of  the  human 
being  are  respected,  even  in  the  child.  In  Kussia,  tlic 
individual  person  counts  for  nothing:  he  derives  all 
his  social  value  from  the  Emi)eror.  Ha  makes  the 
laws,  and  ninety  millions  of  subjects  must  ol)cy.  It  is 
always  a  characteristic  indication  of  a  strong  re  vol  n- 
tionary  current  in  a  state,  when  people  dare  to  attril)- 
ute  to  the  government  the  crimes  its  subjects  commit; 
and  that  is  done  in  Russia  every  day. 

The  stupid  masses  of  the  people  consider  the  auto- 
cratic regime  and  the  clei)tocratic  office-holder  tradi- 
tions just  as  sacred  as  the  dogmas  of  their  orthodox 
faith.  In  diametrical  opposition  to  this  immovable 
sediment  of  society,  we  find  a  younger  generation 
nurtured  with  the  liberal  and  radical  ideas  of  AVestern 
Europe.  If  these  ideas  were  as  well  digested  in  Russia 
as  they  are  in  Western  Europe,  they  might  tend  towards 
elevating  the  Slavic  race.  But  that  is  not  the  case. 
The  great  majority,  even  of  the  better-educated  class, 
is  of  the  opinion  that  the  time  for  a  coustitutioual 
government  has  not  yet  come.  Hence  this  time  of fer- 
vu'ittation,  and  the  exceptional  force  of  Nihilism,  which 
has  in  the  course  of  time  developed  into  destructive- 
uess,  icouoclasm  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word. 


II I  STORY.  405 

A    TALK   WITH  MY  BOYS. 

TiiR  boys  had  li:ul  a  k'ssoii  in  ^Vmerican  history. 
The  lievolutioiKiiy  War  had  hocu  thi'  suliji-ct  of  the 
lesson.  The  ra'diei'  chunsy  way  in  whicii  they  applied 
the  word  "  revolution  "  made  me  8U.s[)icious  in  regard 
to  their  comi)rehension  of  the  word  ''  revolution  :  "  so 
I  interrupted  the  easy  flow  of  cateehization  by  asking 
the  boys,  Wliat  is  a  revolution  ?  A  blank  stare  was 
the  answer. 

After  a  few  moments  the  boldest  ventured  to  define 
it  b\-  saying,  "It  is  a  great  state-aelion."  Then  a 
more  practical  head  suggested  that  he  could  not  see  the 
ditTerenee  between  the  rev(jlution  of  a  wheel  and  tliat 
of  a  state,  for  every  revolution  of  a  state  that  he  lind 
heard  of  was  a  tuining-over,  or  a  complete  revolving  of 
things  that  were  time-honored.  This  was  as  shrewd  an 
answer  as  I  could  have  expected.  I  dwelt  n[)on  it, 
touching  u|)on  the  etymology  of  the  wi)r(l,  until  I  had 
tile  definition  clearly  establislu-d  ;  referring  to  the  fact 
tliat  in  a  state  revolution  the  government  is  upset, 
overturned. 

And  now  the  boys  seemed  to  me  ready  for  the  next 
step.  80  1  asked,  "  What  is  the  difference  between 
a  revolution  and  a  rebellion?  Why  is  not  the  secession 
of  the  Southern  States  called  a  revolution  also?  I  am 
sure  the  government  was  u[)set."  The  boys  seemed 
nonplussed.  1  saw  them  thiiii<  hard.  Finally  one  ven- 
tiiriMl  to  say,  "■  1  think  I  (•:iu  answer  the  (juestion." 
Said  he,  "  If  the  secession  of  tlie  Sontliern  States  had 


406      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE  DAY. 

been  not  merely  temporary,  but  had  become  per- 
manent, then  it  wonhl  have  been  called  a  revolution, 
that  is,  a  complete  revolving  of  the  government.  But 
tiie  opposite  took  place.  The  secession  was  not  suc- 
cessful, and  the  States  were  obliged  to  return  under  the 
old  established  government.  Thus,  if  the  wheel  had 
begun  to  go  round,  it  was  forced  backward  into  its  old 
position.  So  I  define  a  rebellion  by  saying,  'an  un- 
successful attempt  at  revolution,  or  an  unsuccessful 
revolution,  in  short.'  " 

Call  this  clumsy  logic,  if  you  please  :  it  was  a  neat 
and  shrewd  way  of  clearing  up  an  obscure  idea. 

OUR    COUNTRY. 

If  the  fathers  of  our  Republic  could  to-day  see  the 
proud  and  powerful  union  of  Slates,  the  foundation  of 
wliich  they  laid  a  little  more  than  one  hundred  and 
ten  years  ago,  what  astonishment,  what  admiration, 
what  justifialile  pride,  would  fill  their  hearts !  The 
thirteen  Colonies  clustered  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
scarcely  able  to  resist  their  oppressors,  have  become  a 
vast  structure  that  reaches  from  ocean  to  ocean,  from 
the  dreary  regions  of  the  icy  North,  to  the  fertile 
plains  of  the  sunny  South  ;  immeasurably  rich  in  natu- 
ral products  of  all  zones,  in  inexhaustible  treasures 
of  the  deep,  in  products  of  a  fabulously  developed 
industry;  rich  in  credit,  honor,  reputation,  and  author- 
ity before  the  world  ;  richer  still  in  intelligence,  energy, 
enterprise,  and  inventive  jiower  of  its  citizens  ;  hurry- 
ing onward  in  impetuous  flight  in  all  domains  of  human 


HISTORY.  407 

exertion,  and  snatching  the  palm  of  victory  from  the 
countries  of  the  Old  World,  that  boast  of  a  civilization 
a  thousand  years  old. 

The  genius  of  liberty  and  independence,  the  crea- 
tive power  of  unfettered  self-activity,  of  unrestrained 
development,  inspired  the  originally  small  Union  ;  and 
one  hundred  years  —  a  short  space  of  time  in  the  life 
of  a  nation  —  sufficed  to  elevate  it  to  one  of  the  great 
powers  of  the  woi'ld,  looked  upon  by  monarchical 
Europe  with  envy  and  badlj'  concealed  anxiety.  And 
yet  the  young  giant  has  not  reached  his  full  growth : 
yet  daily  new  blood  rushes  into  his  veins,  swelling 
them  to  renewed  ardor ;  he  peoples  the  wilderness ; 
and  before  a  second  century  has  come  to  its  close,  the 
stai-s  and  stripes  are  destined  to  wave  over  the  greater 
part  of  this  continent  which  fate  seems  to  have  allotted 
to  liira. 

(The  above  may  be  used  as  a  declamation.  It  is 
suited  to  awaken  patriotism,  and  may  therefore  be 
applied  in  other  than  history  classes.) 

WHAT  I  HEARD   FROM   THE   STUMP. 

Onk  day  I  heard  a  man  speak  from  the  stump ; 
and  it  seemed  to  me,  he  spoke  in  pica  type,  not  in 
minion.  Said  he,  "  AVe  are  living  off  the  honesty  of 
Washington,  Jefferson,  and  Franklin;  and  I  tell  you, 
that  stock  of  honest}'  is  well-nigh  used  up.  It  is 
about  time  for  us  to  develop  some  of  our  own. 
Wherever  I  turn,  —  to  politics,  to  commerce,  to 
industry,  to  the  financial  world,  to  law,  to  medicine. 


408      EDUCATIONAL    TOPICS   OF  THE   DAY. 

to  education,  to  the  ministiy,  —  everywhere  I  find 
dishonest}-,  cheating,  ballot-box  stufling,  qnackoiy  in 
medicine,  charlatanry  in  every  field  of  luunan  exer- 
tion, corruption  on  the  bench,  show  and  varnish  in 
education. 

"  Boys,  look  back  into  history  !  When  the  proverb- 
ial simplicity,  honest}-,  uprightness,  and  patriotism  of 
Cineinnatus,  Fabricius,  Fabius,  and  other  Roman  lead- 
ers, vanished,  then  the  star  of  the  Roman  empire  be- 
gan to  decline.  History  repeats  itself;  only  don't 
forget  that  we  are  living  in  a  time  in  which  events, 
things,  and  persons  come  and  go  much  faster  than  at 
the  time  of  the  Roman  republic.  Mark  m}-  words, 
bo^'s,  and  replenish  our  stock  of  honesty,  civil  virtue, 
and  patriotism.  Poor  little  George's  virtues  won't 
bold  out  much  longer." 


^    TANE  ANDREWS^S  BOOKS      6) 

ONLY  A  YEAR  AND  WHAT  IT  BROUGHT 

A  Book  for  Gir/s.     Cloth,  $1.00. 


TEN    BOYS 

WHO  LIVED  ON  THE  ROAD  FROM  LONG  AGO  TO  NOW 

With  Twenty  Illustrations.     Cloth.     80  cents,  net.    By  mail,  $1.00. 

INTROnl'CINO  THE    SToniES   OP 

THE  ARTAX  BOY,    THK  PKKSIAN  BOY,    THE  (iKKEK  BOY.    THE  ROUAll 

BOY.  THE  SAXON   BOY.  THE  I'AtiE.   IHE  LMiLISH  LAB.  THE 

PLUITAN   BOY,  THE  YANKEE  BOV,  THE  BOV  OE  ISSo. 

And  <:rivinj^  eutertaiiiinj?  and  Virlnablii  information  upon  tlip  niannpra 
and  cnstonis  of  tin;  different  nations  from  Aryan  age  to  now. 

Tlu!  iM>et  John  G.  Whittiku  says  of  it:  — 

"  I  have  \>cen  reading  the  new  book  b>  -lane  Andrews,  'Ten  Boys  who  Lived 
on  the  Koad  fioin  Long  Ago  to  Now,'  whith  you  have  just  published,  and  cau- 
nol  forbear  saying  that  in  all  my  acquainUtnce  wilh  juvenile  literature  1  krjow  of 
nothing  in  luatiy  reitpecls  e<|nal  to  this  remarkable  book,  which  containii  in  ita 
small  compass  the  concentrated  knowledge  of  vast  libraries.  It  )»  the  admirably 
told  story  of  past  centuries  of  the  world's  progress,  and  the  amount  of  study  and 
labor  requited  in  its  preparation  seems  almost  appalling  to  contemplate.  One  ia 
struck  with  the  peculiar  excellence  of  its  style,  —  clear,  easy,  graceful,  and  pic- 
turesque, —  which  a  child  cannot  fail  to  comprehend,  and  in  which  '  children  of  a 
larger  growth  '  will  find  an  irresistible  charm.  That  it  will  prove  a  favorite  with 
old  and  young,  I  have  no  doubt.  It  seems  to  me  that  nothing  could  be  more  ea- 
joyalile  to  the  l)oy  of  our  period  than  the  story  of  how  the  boys  of  all  ages  lived 
aud  acted." 


THE   SEVEN    LITTLE   SISTERS 

WHO  LIVE  ON   THE  ROUND    BALL    THAT  FLOATS   IN    THE  AIR. 

Lil/ranj  Edition,  fl.f>0.     School  Edition,  60  cents,  net.    By  mail.  5.5  cents. 
Tlie  Seven  Little  Sisters  are  typical  of  seven  races;  and  tlie  author's 
idea  is  to  portraj'  liow  these  "  little  women  "  live  in  iliverse  ]iarts  of 
the  world,  how  the  products  of  one  country  are  brought  to  another, 
their  manners,  customs,  etc.    The  stories  are  charmingly  tuld. 


Tie  Seven  Little  Sisters  Profe  Tlieir  Sisterliooil. 

Library  Edition,  $1.00.     School  Edition,  60  cents,  net.    By  mail,  66  cents. 

This  may  ]>e  considered  a  sequel  to  The  Seven  Little  Sisters,  in 
which  the  nationalities  are  again  taken  up,  and  tlie  peculiarities  of 
each,  in  relation  to  its  childhood,  are  naturally  and  pleasingly  given. 

GEOGRAPHICAL    PLAYS. 

Comprising   United   States,   Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America, 

Australia  and  the  Islands,  the  Commerce  of  the  World. 

C/o<>i,  $1.00;   or  in  Paper  Covers,  16  cents  each.     Six  Parts- 

These  plays  have  been  prepared  to  enable  tlie  children  to  take  a 

ronipr«bensive  vj^w  of   tlie  geograpliy  of  the   dilTereut  countries, 

alter  having  studied  jnirtions  »>f  it  from  day  to  day. 

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IRENE  E.  JEROME'S    .    •    .    . 
1    ..,'..    .    ^RT    gOOKS 

THE    "PERPETUAL    PLEASURE"    SERIES 

"  The  sketches  are  xuch  as  the  most  famous  men  of  the  country  might 
be  proud  to  own.  They  are  original,  strong,  and  impressive,  euen  the 
lightest  of  them  ;  and  their  variety,  lii<e  a  procession  of  Nature,  is  a 
Iterpetual  pleasure." 


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wood  and  printed  under  the  direction  of  GEORGE  T.  Andrew.     4to,  cloth, 
$3.75:  Turkey  morocco,  $9.00;  tree  calf,  $9.00;   English  seal  style,  $7.00. 
The  new  volume  is  akin  to  the  former  triumphs  of  this  favorite  artist,  whose 
"  Sketch  Books  "  have  achieved  a  popularity  imequalled  in  the  history  of  fine 
art   publications.     In   the  profusion   of  designs,  originality,  and  delicacy  of 
treatment,    the    charming   sketches  of   mountain,    meadow,   lake,    and    forest 
scenery  of  New  England  here  reproduced  are  unexcelled.     After  the  wealth  of 
illustration  which  this  student  of  nature  has  poured  into  the  lap  of  art,  to  pro- 
duce a  volume  in  which  there  is  no  deterioration  of  power  or  beauty,  but,  if 
possible,  increased  strength  and  enlargement  of  ideas,  gives  assurance  that  the 
aremost  female  artist  in  America  will  hold  the  hearts  of  her  legion  of  admirers. 

NATURE'S     HALLELUJAH.     Presented  in  a  series  of  nearly 

fifty  full-page  original  illustrations  (g'A  x  14  inches),  engraved  on  wood  by 

George  T.  Andrew.     Elegantly  bound  in  gold  cloth,  full  gilt,  gilt  edges, 

$6.00;  Turkey  morocco,  $12  00;  tree  calf,  $iz. 00;  English  seal  style,  $10.00. 

This  volume  has  won  the  most  cordial  praise  on  both  sides  of  the  water. 

Mr.  t'rancis  H.  Underwood,  U.  S.  Consul  at  Glasgow,  writes  concerning  it: 

"  1  have  never  seen  anything  .superior,  if  equal,  to  the  delicacy  and  finish  of 

the  engravings,  and  the  perfection  of  the  press-work.     The  copy  you  sent  me 

has  been  looked  over  with  evident  and  unfeigned  delight  by  many  people  of 

artistic  taste.     Every   one  frankly  says,  '  it  is  impossible  to  produce  such 

effects  here,'  and,  whether  it  is  possible  or  not,  I  am  sure  it  is  iioi  done  ;  no 

such  effect^  are  produced  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.     In  this  combination  of 

art  and  workmanship,  the  United  States  leads  the  world;  and  you  have  a  right 

to  be  proud  of  the  honor  of  presenting  such  a  specimen  to  the  public." 

ONE  YEAR'S  SKETCH  BOOK.  Containing  forty  six  full- 
page  original  illustrations,  engraved  on  wood  by  Andrew  ;  in  same  bindings 
and  at  same  prices  as  "  Nature's  Hallelujah." 

"  Every  thick,  creamy  page  is  embellished  by  some  gems  of  art.  Sometimes 
it  is  but  a  dash  and  a  few  trembling  strokes;  at  others  an  impressive  landscape, 
but  in  all  and  through  all  runs  the  master  touch.  Miss  Jerome  has  the  genius 
of  an  Angelo,  and  the  execution  of  a  Guido.  The  beauty  of  the  sketches  will 
be  apparent  to  all,  having  been  taken  from  our  unrivalled  New  England 
scenery." —  lVashingt07i  Chronicle. 

THE   MESSAGE  OF  THE   BLUEBIRD,  Told  to  Me 

to  Tell  to  Others.  Original  illustrations  engraved  on  wood  by 
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tration ever  published,  exhibiting  in  a  marked  degree  the  fine  poetic  taste  and 
wonderfully  artistic  touch  which  render  this  author's  works  so  popular.  The 
pictures  are  exquisite,  and  the  verses  exceedingly  graceful,  appealing  to  the 
highest  sensibilities.  The  little  volume  ranks  among  the  choicest  of  holiday 
souvenirs,  and  is  beautiful  and  pleasing."  —  Boston  Transcript. 

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For  the  use  of  all  who  teacli,  write,  or  spenk  the  language.  Hy  Mmjsiiai.i. 
T.  I'iGELOw,  author  of  "  I'unctuation  and  other  Typographical 
Matters." 

PUNCTUATION  AND   OTHER   TYPOGRAPHICAL   MATTERS 

For  the  use  of  Printers,  Authors,  Teachers,  and  Scholars.  By  Marshall 
T.  BiGELOW,  Corrector  at  the  University  Press,  Cambridge. 

1000  BLUNDERS  IN  ENGLISH 

A  Handbook  of  Suggestions  in  Reading  and  Speaking.  By  Haru^n  H. 
HALt.AKi),  A.M.,  Principal  of  Lenox  Academy,  Lenox,  Mass. 

HINTS  AND  HELPS 

For  those  who  write,  print,  or  read.     By  Benjamin  Drew. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMES  DISCRIMINATED 

By  key.  Richard  Wh.\tely,  IJ.D.,  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  A  new 
edition. 

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C)f  Words  often  mispronounced,  and  of  words  as  to  which  a  Choice  of  Pro- 
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CAMPBELL'S  HANDBOOK  OF  ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 

W'ah  an  Appendix  showing  the  Correct  Uses  of  Prepositions. 

HINTS  ON  LANGUAGE 

In  connection  \vith  Sight  Reading  and  Writing  in  Primary  and  Intermediate 
Schools.  l'>y  S.  Arthur  Be.nt,  A.M.,  Superintendent  ol  Public 
Schools,  Clinton,  Mass. 

FORGOTTEN   MEANINGS 

Or,  An  Hour  with  the  Dictionary.  By  Alfred  Waites.,  author  of 
"  Student's  Historical  Manual.'" 

SHORT  STUDIES  OF  AMERICAN  AUTHORS 

By  Tho.mas  Wentwortii  Hicginson,  author  of  "  Young  Folks'  History 
of  the  United  States,"  "  Young  Folks'  American  Explorers,  ' 
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Black  Regiment,"  "  Atlantic  Essays,"  etc. 

HINTS  ON   WRITING  AND  SPEECH-MAKING 

lly   ']'Hr)MAS  WliNTWOUTFI    Hk;(,inson. 

UNIVERSAL   PHONOGRAPHY 

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Principal  of  the  Allen  Stenographic  Institute,  Boston. 

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DRIFTING    ROUND    THE    WORLD;    A   Boy's   Adventures  by 

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and  adventurous;  and  the  book  is  in  every  way  interesting  and  attractive. 

EDWARD  GRE'eY'S  JAPANESE  SERIES 
YOUNG   AMERICANS   IN   JAPAN;    or.  The  Adventures  of  the 

Jewett  Family  and  their  Friend  Oto  Nambo 
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land  of  the  rising  sun. 

THE  WONDERFUL  CITY  OF  TOKIO;  or.  The  Further  Ad- 
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mostly  drawn  by  a  Japanese  artist,  and  are  verj'  unique."  — C/iicui^o  Hernld. 

THE  BEAR  WORSHIPPERS  OF  YEZO  AND  THE  ISLAND 
OF  KARAFUTO;  being  the  further  Adventures  of  the 
Jewett  Family  and  their  Friend  Oto  Nambo 

180  illustrations.     Boards,  $1.75.     Cloth,  $2,50. 

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HARRy   W.  FRENCH'S  BOOKS 
OUR   BOYS    IN    INDIA 

The  wanderings  of  two  young  Americans  in  Hindustan,  with  their  exciting 

adventures  on  the  sacred  rivers  and  wild  mountains.    With  145  illustrations. 

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OUR   BOYS    IN    CHINA 

The  adventures  of  two  young  Americans,  wrecked  in  the  China^Sea  on  their 

return   from    India,  with    their   strange   wanderings   through    the   Chinese 

Empire.     188  illustrations.     Boards,  ornamental  covers  in  colors  and  gold, 

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This  gives  the  further  adventures  of"  Our  Boys"  of  India  fame  in  the  Land 
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has  dune.  Tnc  work  will  be  very  useful  in  the  library  and  in  the  study."  — 
Ha>l/or,i  Post. 

HUMAN  LIFE  IN   SHAKESPEARE 

l?y  Hknkv  (lii.ivs,  with  an  introduction  by  John  Ijovlic  O'Reii.lv.     New 

edition.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

"  When  these  lectures  were  delivered  a  number  of  years  ago  before  the 
Lowell  Institute,  in  Boston,  they  created  a  profound  impression  as  being 
simply  masterly  essays  on  Shakespeare,  such  as  could  be  jiroduccd  only  by  a 
man  of  consummate  genius.  They  made  renown  for  the  learned  author.  'I'he 
inlellectual  power  which  was  behind  these  cxtraordinarj*  lectures  has  followed 
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speare in  print.  The  introduction  is  by  John  Boyle  O'Reilly,  who  says:  '  This 
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LIFE   AND   TIMES    OF  JESUS 

As  rcl.itcd   by   Thomas    1  liilyuuis.      l!y    Kcv.   Jamks    Freeman    Clarke. 

New  edition.     Cloth,  .$1.50. 

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which  a  residence  in  the  Orient  enabled  General  Wallace  to  give  to  his  romance, 
it  displays  a  critical  knowledge  of  the  New  Testament  writings  painfully  lack- 
ing in  Ben  Hur.  The  two  books  should  be  read  together,  ami  then  the  reader 
will  be  able  to  arrive  at  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  life  and  tunes  of  Jesus."  — 
0>H,ilia   World. 

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A  series  of  Lectures,  by  Anijukw  P.  PEAnODY,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Emeritus 
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earlier  work  of  Kr.  Peabody.  The  work  is  the  product  of  a  finely  developed 
iiiiiid,  .111(1  illustrates  ihe  principles  of  ethical  science  as  they  arc  developed  in 
it-,  iiwn  and  human  history."  —  .\'or7oich  Hiiltctin. 

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BEATEN  PATHS  ;  or,  A  Woman's  Vacation  in  Europe 

By  Ella  W.  Tho.mpson.     i6mo,  cloth.     $1.50. 

A  lively  and  chatty  book  of  travel,  with  pen-pictures  humorous  and  graphic, 
that  are  decidedly  out  of  the  "  beaten  paths  "  of  description. 
AN    AMERICAN    GIRL   ABROAD 
By   Miss   Adeline    Trafton,   author   of  "His    Inheritance,"  "  Katherine 

Earle,"  etc      i6mo.     Illustrated.     $1.50. 

"  A  sparkling  account  of  a  European  trip  by  a  wide-awake,  intelligent,  and 
irrepressible  American  girl.  Pictured  with  a  freshness  and  vivacity  that  is 
delightful."  —  Utica  Observer. 

CURTIS   GUILD'S   TRAVELS 
BRITONS  AND  MUSCOVITES;  or,  Traits  of  Two  Empires 

Cloth,  ,$2.00. 

OVER  THE  OCEAN;  or.  Sights  and  Scenes  in  Foreign  Lands 

By  Curtis  Guild,  editor  of  "  The  Boston  Commercial  Bulletin  '    '  >owii  8vo. 

Cloth,  $2.50. 

"  The  utmost  that  any  European  tourist  can  hope  to  do  is  to  tell  the  old 
story  in  a  somewhat  fresh  way,  and  Mr.  Guild  has  succeeded  in  every  part  of 
his  book  in  doing  this."  —  Philadclpliia  Bulletin. 
ABROAD   AGAIN;  or,  Fresh  Forays  in  Foreign  Fields 
Uniform    with    "  Over   the   Ocean."      By    the   same    author.      Crown  8vo. 

Cloth,  $2.50. 

"  He  has  given  us  a  life-picture.  Europe  is  done  in  a  style  that  must  serve 
as  an  invaluable  guide  to  those  who  go  '  over  the  ocean,'  as  well  as  an  inier- 
ep'jn?  companion."  —  Halifax  Citiz>  >i. 


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5 


f|ARRATIVE8 


OF    NOTED- 


TRAVELLERS 


GERMANY  .SEEN     WITHOUT     SPECTACLES;    or,    Random 
Sketches  of  Various  Subjects,  Penned  from  Different  Stand- 
points in  the  Empire 
By  Henky  Rucglks,  late  United  States  Consul  at  the  Island  of  Malta,  and 

at  Barcelona,  Spain.     $1.50. 

"  Mr.  Ruggles  writes  briskly:   he  chats  and  gossips,  slashing  right  and  left 
with  stout  American   prejudices,  and  has  made  withal   a   most  entertaining 
book.''  —  Nt7u- )  'or/c  Iribiiiif. 
TRAVELS   AND   OBSERVATIONS    IN   THE   ORIENT,  with  a 

Hasty  Flight  in  the  Countries  of  Europe 
By  Wai.iek  Hahki.man  (ex(jovcrnor  of  New  Hampshire).     $1.50. 

"  The  author,  \n  his  graphic  description  of  these  sacred  localities,  refers 
with  great  aptness  to  scenes  and  personages  which  history  has  made  famous 
It  is  a  chatty  narrative  of  travel."  —  Concord  Monitor. 
FORE   AND   AFT 
A  Story  of  .\ctual  Sea-Life.     By  Robert  B.  Dixon,  M.D.     $1.25. 

Travels  in  Mexico,  with  vivid  descriptions  of  manners  and  customs,  form  a 
large  part  of  this  striking  narrative  of  a  fourtcen-raonths'  voyage. 
VOYAGE   OF   THE    PAPER   CANOE 
A  Geographical  Journey  of  Twenty-five   Hundred  Miles  from  Quebec  to  the 

Gulf  of  Mexico.      By  Nathaniel  H.   Bishop.     With  numerous  illustr.i- 

tions  and  maps  specially  prepared  for  this  work.     Crown  8vo.     $1.50. 

"Mr.    Bishop  did  a  very  bold  thing,  and  has    described  it  with  a  happy 
mixture  of  spirit,  keen  observation,  and  hotilicntie."  —  Loudon  Graphic. 
FOUR   MONTHS   IN    A    SNEAK-BOX 
A  Boat  Voyage  of  Twenty-six  Hundred  Miles  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 

Rivers,  and  along  the  (Julf  of -Mexico.     By  Nathaniel  H.  Bishop.    With 

numerous  maps  and  illustrations.     $1.50. 

"His  glowing  pen-pictures  of  '  shanty-boat '  life    on    the   great  rivers  are 
true  to  life.     His  descriptions  of  persons  and  places  are  graphic."  —  Zion'i 
Herald. 
A   THOUSAND   MILES'  ^VALK   ACROSS  SOUTH  AMERICA, 

Over  the  Pampas  and  the  Andes 
By  Natii  \NIKL  H.  Bisikh'.     Crown  8vo.     .\'ew  edition.     Illustrated.     $1.50. 

"  Mr.  Bishop  made  this  journey  when  a  boy  of  sixteen,  has  never  forgotten 
it,  and  tells  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  reader  will  alw.iys  remember  it,  and 
wish  there  had  been  more." 
CAMPS   IN   THE    CARIBBEES 
Being  the  Adventures  of  a  Naturalist  I'ird-hunting  in  the  West-India  Islands. 

By  Kkrd  a.  OiiKK-.     New  edition.     With  maps  and  illustrations.     $1.50- 

"  During  two  years  he  visited  mountains,  forests,  and  people,  that  few,  if 
any,  tourists  had  ever  reached  before.     He  carried  his  camen  with  him,  and 
photographed   from   nature  the  scenes  by  which  the  book   ii  illustrated."  — 
Loiiis-.iUe  Coiirirr-yournnl. 
ENGLAND    FROM     A    BACK     WINDOW;    With     Views     of 

Scotland  and  Ireland 
By  J.  M.  Baii.f.v,  the  "  '  Danbury  News'  Man."     i2mo.     $1.00. 

"  The  |K'.:\iliar  humor  of  this  writer  is  well  known.  The  British  Isles  have 
never  before  been  IfKtked  at  in  just  the  same  way,  —  at  least,  not  by  any  one 
who  has  notified  us  of  the  f.;c(.  Mr.  BaileyV  travels  possess,  accordingly,  a 
value  of  their  own  for  the  reador,  no  matter  how  many  previous  records  of 
journeys  in  the  mother  Kjuiitry  he  may  have  re.ad." —  Rochester  Express. 


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ROOKS  OF  PfiRTICULflR  INTEREST   .... 
TO  yOUNG  MEN  AND  WOMEN 


HENRY   WADSWORTH    LONGFELLOW 

His    Life,    His   Works,    His    Kriendships.     I5y    Geokge    Lowei.i.    Austin. 

Profusely  illustrated.     Cloth,  $2.00.     New  edition.     Formerly  published  by 

subscription. 

"  We  have  here  a  clear  and  popular  presentation  of  the  poet's  literary  life. 
The  details  of  his  personal  and  private  life,  or  at  least  so  much  of  it  as  belongs 
by  right  strictly  to  his  family,  has  been  avoided,  and  that  properly.  What  the 
public  have  a  right  to  know  is  found  in  this  volume,  in  a  .style  that  is  easy  and 
pleasing.  Here  you  have  Longfellow  as  a  child,  as  a  college  student,  and  as 
a  professor  in  Bowdoin  College;  and  especially  does  he  appear  here  as  a  man 
of  letters.     It  is  a  charming  volume."  —  Christian  Standard. 

LIFE   AND   TIMES   OF   WENDELL   PHILLIPS 

By  George  Lowell  Aistin.  With  steel  portrait  and  illustrations.  Cloth, 
$1.50.  New  edition.  The  only  complete  Life  of  the  great  agitator. 
'■  The  life  of  a  m.m  who  was  so  strongly  identified  with  one  of  the  most 
stirring  periods  in  American  history  must  necessarily  be  one  of  much  interest, 
and  Mr.  .\usiin  has  succeeded  in  presenting  its  features  in  a  very  attractive 
way.  Portions  of  Mr.  Phillips's  most  important  public  addresses  are  given, 
and  there  are  reminiscences  of  the  man  by  some  of  his  close  friends  and  asso- 
ciates." —  P!iiladel/>kia  Record. 

Wendell  Phillips's  Lectures,  Orations,  and  Letters,  to  1861.     563  pages. 

Library  edition.     8vo $2  50 

Popular  edition,  with  Biographical  Sketch,  i6mo i  00 

The  Scholar  in  a  Republic.     Paper,  8vo 25 

Eulogy  of  Garrison.     Paper,  8vo 25 

Lost  Arts      Paper,  8vo 25 

Daniel  O'Connell.     Paper,  8vo 25 

Labor  Question.     Paper,  8vo 25 

LIFE  AND  DEEDS  OF  GENERAL  U.  S.  GRANT 

By  Rev.  P.  C.  Headlev  and  Geokge  Lowell  Austin.     Profusely  illustrated. 

Cloth,  $1.50. 

The  materials  for  the  early  years  of  the  subject  of  this  popular  biography 
were  furnished  by  the  immediate  friends  and  relatives  of  his  family.  The 
events  bearing  upon  the  war  history  are  based  upon  the  recognized  authorities, 
and  will  stand  the  te>t  of  military  criticism.  The  work  is  intensely  interesting, 
and  exceedingly  popular. 

Oliver  Optic's  OUR   STANDARD   BEARER 

Or  the  Life  of  Gen-ral  Ulysses  S.  Gr.xnt,  his  youth,  his  manhood,  his  cam- 
paign, and  his  eminent  services  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  nation  his  sword 
has  redeemed,  as  seen  and  related  by  Captain  Bernard  Gallvgasken,  Cos- 
mopolitan, and  written  out  by  Oliver  Oitic.  A  new  edition,  with  supple- 
mentary' chapters,  containing  the  political  life  of  the  general,  his  travels 
abroad,  his  sickness  and  death.  Cloth;  illustrated  by  Thomas  Nast  and 
others,  elegantly  bound,  $1.50 
"  It  is  written  in  Mr.  Adams's  happiest  vein,  and  is  a  most  unique  and 

interesting  presentation  of  a  subject  upon  which  volumes  have  been  written 

and  read." 


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3.  a>^ 


UCLA-Young   Research    Library 

LB1025    .K67 

y 


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UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    001  224  920    7 


